Offline reinforcement learning (RL) is suitable for safety-critical domains where online exploration is too costly or dangerous. In safety-critical settings, decision-making should take into consideration the risk of catastrophic outcomes. In other words, decision-making should be risk-sensitive. Previous works on risk in offline RL combine together offline RL techniques, to avoid distributional shift, with risk-sensitive RL algorithms, to achieve risk-sensitivity. In this work, we propose risk-sensitivity as a mechanism to jointly address both of these issues. Our model-based approach is risk-averse to both epistemic and aleatoric uncertainty. Risk-aversion to epistemic uncertainty prevents distributional shift, as areas not covered by the dataset have high epistemic uncertainty. Risk-aversion to aleatoric uncertainty discourages actions that may result in poor outcomes due to environment stochasticity. Our experiments show that our algorithm achieves competitive performance on deterministic benchmarks, and outperforms existing approaches for risk-sensitive objectives in stochastic domains.

离线RL算法必须说明其提供的数据集可能使环境的许多方面未知。应对这一挑战的最常见方法是采用悲观或保守的方法，避免行为与培训数据集中的行为过于不同。但是，仅依靠保守主义存在缺点：绩效对保守主义的确切程度很敏感，保守的目标可以恢复高度最佳的政策。在这项工作中，我们建议在不确定性的情况下，脱机RL方法应该是适应性的。我们表明，在贝叶斯的意义上，在离线RL中最佳作用涉及解决隐式POMDP。结果，离线RL的最佳策略必须是自适应的，这不仅取决于当前状态，而且还取决于迄今为止在评估期间看到的所有过渡。我们提出了一种无模型的算法，用于近似于此最佳自适应策略，并证明在离线RL基准测试中学习此类适应性政策。

Offline reinforcement learning (RL) refers to the problem of learning policies entirely from a large batch of previously collected data. This problem setting offers the promise of utilizing such datasets to acquire policies without any costly or dangerous active exploration. However, it is also challenging, due to the distributional shift between the offline training data and those states visited by the learned policy. Despite significant recent progress, the most successful prior methods are model-free and constrain the policy to the support of data, precluding generalization to unseen states. In this paper, we first observe that an existing model-based RL algorithm already produces significant gains in the offline setting compared to model-free approaches. However, standard model-based RL methods, designed for the online setting, do not provide an explicit mechanism to avoid the offline setting's distributional shift issue. Instead, we propose to modify the existing model-based RL methods by applying them with rewards artificially penalized by the uncertainty of the dynamics. We theoretically show that the algorithm maximizes a lower bound of the policy's return under the true MDP. We also characterize the trade-off between the gain and risk of leaving the support of the batch data. Our algorithm, Model-based Offline Policy Optimization (MOPO), outperforms standard model-based RL algorithms and prior state-of-the-art model-free offline RL algorithms on existing offline RL benchmarks and two challenging continuous control tasks that require generalizing from data collected for a different task. * equal contribution. † equal advising. Orders randomized.34th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2020),

离线增强学习（RL）将经典RL算法的范式扩展到纯粹从静态数据集中学习，而无需在学习过程中与基础环境进行交互。离线RL的一个关键挑战是政策培训的不稳定，这是由于离线数据的分布与学习政策的未结束的固定状态分配之间的不匹配引起的。为了避免分配不匹配的有害影响，我们将当前政策的未静置固定分配正规化在政策优化过程中的离线数据。此外，我们训练动力学模型既实施此正规化，又可以更好地估计当前策略的固定分布，从而减少了分布不匹配引起的错误。在各种连续控制的离线RL数据集中，我们的方法表示竞争性能，从而验证了我们的算法。该代码公开可用。

Behavioural cloning (BC) is a commonly used imitation learning method to infer a sequential decision-making policy from expert demonstrations. However, when the quality of the data is not optimal, the resulting behavioural policy also performs sub-optimally once deployed. Recently, there has been a surge in offline reinforcement learning methods that hold the promise to extract high-quality policies from sub-optimal historical data. A common approach is to perform regularisation during training, encouraging updates during policy evaluation and/or policy improvement to stay close to the underlying data. In this work, we investigate whether an offline approach to improving the quality of the existing data can lead to improved behavioural policies without any changes in the BC algorithm. The proposed data improvement approach - Trajectory Stitching (TS) - generates new trajectories (sequences of states and actions) by `stitching' pairs of states that were disconnected in the original data and generating their connecting new action. By construction, these new transitions are guaranteed to be highly plausible according to probabilistic models of the environment, and to improve a state-value function. We demonstrate that the iterative process of replacing old trajectories with new ones incrementally improves the underlying behavioural policy. Extensive experimental results show that significant performance gains can be achieved using TS over BC policies extracted from the original data. Furthermore, using the D4RL benchmarking suite, we demonstrate that state-of-the-art results are obtained by combining TS with two existing offline learning methodologies reliant on BC, model-based offline planning (MBOP) and policy constraint (TD3+BC).

离线强化学习在利用大型预采用的数据集进行政策学习方面表现出了巨大的希望，使代理商可以放弃经常廉价的在线数据收集。但是，迄今为止，离线强化学习的探索相对较小，并且缺乏对剩余挑战所在的何处的了解。在本文中，我们试图建立简单的基线以在视觉域中连续控制。我们表明，对两个基于最先进的在线增强学习算法，Dreamerv2和DRQ-V2进行了简单的修改，足以超越事先工作并建立竞争性的基准。我们在现有的离线数据集中对这些算法进行了严格的评估，以及从视觉观察结果中进行离线强化学习的新测试台，更好地代表现实世界中离线增强学习问题中存在的数据分布，并开放我们的代码和数据以促进此方面的进度重要领域。最后，我们介绍并分析了来自视觉观察的离线RL所独有的几个关键Desiderata，包括视觉分散注意力和动态视觉上可识别的变化。

依赖于太多的实验来学习良好的行动，目前的强化学习（RL）算法在现实世界的环境中具有有限的适用性，这可能太昂贵，无法探索探索。我们提出了一种批量RL算法，其中仅使用固定的脱机数据集来学习有效策略，而不是与环境的在线交互。批量RL中的有限数据产生了在培训数据中不充分表示的状态/行动的价值估计中的固有不确定性。当我们的候选政策从生成数据的候选政策发散时，这导致特别严重的外推。我们建议通过两个直接的惩罚来减轻这个问题：减少这种分歧的政策限制和减少过于乐观估计的价值约束。在全面的32个连续动作批量RL基准测试中，我们的方法对最先进的方法进行了比较，无论如何收集离线数据如何。

不确定性量化是现实世界应用中机器学习的主要挑战之一。在强化学习中，一个代理人面对两种不确定性，称为认识论不确定性和态度不确定性。同时解开和评估这些不确定性，有机会提高代理商的最终表现，加速培训并促进部署后的质量保证。在这项工作中，我们为连续控制任务的不确定性感知强化学习算法扩展了深层确定性策略梯度算法（DDPG）。它利用了认识论的不确定性，以加快探索和不确定性来学习风险敏感的政策。我们进行数值实验，表明我们的DDPG变体在机器人控制和功率网络优化方面的基准任务中均优于香草DDPG而没有不确定性估计。

识别不确定性和减轻行动对于安全可靠的强化学习代理至关重要，特别是在高风险环境中部署时。在本文中，通过利用动态模型的引导集合来估计环境认知不确定性的基于模型的增强学习算法，在基于模型的增强学习算法中促进了风险敏感性。我们提出了不确定的引导跨熵方法规划，该方法规划，其惩罚导致在模型卷展栏期间产生高方差状态预测的动作序列，将代理引导到具有低不确定性的状态空间的已知区域。实验显示了代理在规划期间识别状态空间的不确定区域，并采取维持代理在高置信区内的行动，而无需明确限制。结果是在获得奖励方面的性能下降，表现出风险与返回之间的权衡。

Effectively leveraging large, previously collected datasets in reinforcement learning (RL) is a key challenge for large-scale real-world applications. Offline RL algorithms promise to learn effective policies from previously-collected, static datasets without further interaction. However, in practice, offline RL presents a major challenge, and standard off-policy RL methods can fail due to overestimation of values induced by the distributional shift between the dataset and the learned policy, especially when training on complex and multi-modal data distributions. In this paper, we propose conservative Q-learning (CQL), which aims to address these limitations by learning a conservative Q-function such that the expected value of a policy under this Q-function lower-bounds its true value. We theoretically show that CQL produces a lower bound on the value of the current policy and that it can be incorporated into a policy learning procedure with theoretical improvement guarantees. In practice, CQL augments the standard Bellman error objective with a simple Q-value regularizer which is straightforward to implement on top of existing deep Q-learning and actor-critic implementations. On both discrete and continuous control domains, we show that CQL substantially outperforms existing offline RL methods, often learning policies that attain 2-5 times higher final return, especially when learning from complex and multi-modal data distributions.Preprint. Under review.

强化学习（RL）已在域中展示有效，在域名可以通过与其操作环境进行积极互动来学习政策。但是，如果我们将RL方案更改为脱机设置，代理商只能通过静态数据集更新其策略，其中脱机强化学习中的一个主要问题出现，即分配转移。我们提出了一种悲观的离线强化学习（PESSORL）算法，以主动引导代理通过操纵价值函数来恢复熟悉的区域。我们专注于由分销外（OOD）状态引起的问题，并且故意惩罚训练数据集中不存在的状态的高值，以便学习的悲观值函数下限界限状态空间内的任何位置。我们在各种基准任务中评估Pessorl算法，在那里我们表明我们的方法通过明确处理OOD状态，与这些方法仅考虑ood行动时，我们的方法通过明确处理OOD状态。

大多数前往离线强化学习（RL）的方法都采取了一种迭代演员 - 批评批评，涉及违规评估。在本文中，我们展示了使用行为政策的政策Q估计来令人惊讶地执行一步的Q估计，从而简单地执行一个受限制/正规化的政策改进的步骤。该一步算法在大部分D4RL基准测试中击败了先前报告的迭代算法的结果。一步基线实现了这种强劲的性能，同时对超公数更简单，更强大而不是先前提出的迭代算法。我们认为迭代方法的表现相对较差是在违反政策评估中固有的高方差，并通过对这些估计的重复优化的政策进行放大。此外，我们假设一步算法的强大性能是由于环境和行为政策中有利结构的组合。

深度强化学习（RL）导致了许多最近和开创性的进步。但是，这些进步通常以培训的基础体系结构的规模增加以及用于训练它们的RL算法的复杂性提高，而均以增加规模的成本。这些增长反过来又使研究人员更难迅速原型新想法或复制已发表的RL算法。为了解决这些问题，这项工作描述了ACME，这是一个用于构建新型RL算法的框架，这些框架是专门设计的，用于启用使用简单的模块化组件构建的代理，这些组件可以在各种执行范围内使用。尽管ACME的主要目标是为算法开发提供一个框架，但第二个目标是提供重要或最先进算法的简单参考实现。这些实现既是对我们的设计决策的验证，也是对RL研究中可重复性的重要贡献。在这项工作中，我们描述了ACME内部做出的主要设计决策，并提供了有关如何使用其组件来实施各种算法的进一步详细信息。我们的实验为许多常见和最先进的算法提供了基准，并显示了如何为更大且更复杂的环境扩展这些算法。这突出了ACME的主要优点之一，即它可用于实现大型，分布式的RL算法，这些算法可以以较大的尺度运行，同时仍保持该实现的固有可读性。这项工作提出了第二篇文章的版本，恰好与模块化的增加相吻合，对离线，模仿和从演示算法学习以及作为ACME的一部分实现的各种新代理。

在现实世界中，通过弱势政策影响环境可能是昂贵的或非常危险的，因此妨碍了现实世界的加强学习应用。离线强化学习（RL）可以从给定数据集中学习策略，而不与环境进行交互。但是，数据集是脱机RL算法的唯一信息源，并确定学习策略的性能。我们仍然缺乏关于数据集特征如何影响不同离线RL算法的研究。因此，我们对数据集特性如何实现离散动作环境的离线RL算法的性能的全面实证分析。数据集的特点是两个度量：（1）通过轨迹质量（TQ）测量的平均数据集返回和（2）由状态 - 动作覆盖（SACO）测量的覆盖范围。我们发现，禁止政策深度Q网家族的变体需要具有高SACO的数据集来表现良好。将学习策略朝向给定数据集的算法对具有高TQ或SACO的数据集进行了良好。对于具有高TQ的数据集，行为克隆优先级或类似于最好的离线RL算法。

在本文中，我们考虑了增强学习（RL）中对风险敏感的顺序决策。我们的贡献是两个方面。首先，我们介绍了一种新颖而连贯的风险量化，即复合风险，该风险量化了学习过程中综合和认知风险的关节作用。现有的作品单独被视为综合性或认知风险，或作为添加剂组合。我们证明，当认知风险措施被期望取代时，添加剂配方是复合风险的特殊情况。因此，综合风险比单个和添加剂配方对伴侣和认知不确定性更敏感。我们还基于集合引导和分布RL提出了一种算法，Sentinel-K，分别代表认知和差异不确定性。 K Learners的合奏使用遵循正规领导者（FTRL）来汇总分布并获得综合风险。我们通过实验验证了Sentinel-K可以更好地估计回报分布，并且与复合风险估计相比，与最新风险敏感和分布RL算法相比，对风险敏感的性能更高。

Learning-to-defer is a framework to automatically defer decision-making to a human expert when ML-based decisions are deemed unreliable. Existing learning-to-defer frameworks are not designed for sequential settings. That is, they defer at every instance independently, based on immediate predictions, while ignoring the potential long-term impact of these interventions. As a result, existing frameworks are myopic. Further, they do not defer adaptively, which is crucial when human interventions are costly. In this work, we propose Sequential Learning-to-Defer (SLTD), a framework for learning-to-defer to a domain expert in sequential decision-making settings. Contrary to existing literature, we pose the problem of learning-to-defer as model-based reinforcement learning (RL) to i) account for long-term consequences of ML-based actions using RL and ii) adaptively defer based on the dynamics (model-based). Our proposed framework determines whether to defer (at each time step) by quantifying whether a deferral now will improve the value compared to delaying deferral to the next time step. To quantify the improvement, we account for potential future deferrals. As a result, we learn a pre-emptive deferral policy (i.e. a policy that defers early if using the ML-based policy could worsen long-term outcomes). Our deferral policy is adaptive to the non-stationarity in the dynamics. We demonstrate that adaptive deferral via SLTD provides an improved trade-off between long-term outcomes and deferral frequency on synthetic, semi-synthetic, and real-world data with non-stationary dynamics. Finally, we interpret the deferral decision by decomposing the propagated (long-term) uncertainty around the outcome, to justify the deferral decision.

现有的离线增强学习（RL）方法面临一些主要挑战，尤其是学识渊博的政策与行为政策之间的分配转变。离线Meta-RL正在成为应对这些挑战的一种有前途的方法，旨在从一系列任务中学习信息丰富的元基础。然而，如我们的实证研究所示，离线元RL在具有良好数据集质量的任务上的单个任务RL方法可能胜过，这表明必须在“探索”不合时宜的情况下进行精细的平衡。通过遵循元元素和“利用”离线数据集的分配状态行为，保持靠近行为策略。通过这种经验分析的激励，我们探索了基于模型的离线元RL，并具有正则政策优化（MERPO），该策略优化（MERPO）学习了一种用于有效任务结构推理的元模型，并提供了提供信息的元元素，以安全地探索过分分布状态 - 行为。特别是，我们使用保守的政策评估和正规政策改进，设计了一种新的基于元指数的基于元指数的基于元模型的参与者批判性（RAC），作为MERPO的关键构建块作为Merpo的关键构建块；而其中的内在权衡是通过在两个正规机构之间达到正确的平衡来实现的，一个是基于行为政策，另一个基于元政策。从理论上讲，我们学识渊博的政策可以保证对行为政策和元政策都有保证的改进，从而确保通过离线元RL对新任务的绩效提高。实验证实了Merpo优于现有的离线META-RL方法的出色性能。

Classical reinforcement learning (RL) techniques are generally concerned with the design of decision-making policies driven by the maximisation of the expected outcome. Nevertheless, this approach does not take into consideration the potential risk associated with the actions taken, which may be critical in certain applications. To address that issue, the present research work introduces a novel methodology based on distributional RL to derive sequential decision-making policies that are sensitive to the risk, the latter being modelled by the tail of the return probability distribution. The core idea is to replace the $Q$ function generally standing at the core of learning schemes in RL by another function taking into account both the expected return and the risk. Named the risk-based utility function $U$, it can be extracted from the random return distribution $Z$ naturally learnt by any distributional RL algorithm. This enables to span the complete potential trade-off between risk minimisation and expected return maximisation, in contrast to fully risk-averse methodologies. Fundamentally, this research yields a truly practical and accessible solution for learning risk-sensitive policies with minimal modification to the distributional RL algorithm, and with an emphasis on the interpretability of the resulting decision-making process.

Off-policy reinforcement learning aims to leverage experience collected from prior policies for sample-efficient learning. However, in practice, commonly used off-policy approximate dynamic programming methods based on Q-learning and actor-critic methods are highly sensitive to the data distribution, and can make only limited progress without collecting additional on-policy data. As a step towards more robust off-policy algorithms, we study the setting where the off-policy experience is fixed and there is no further interaction with the environment. We identify bootstrapping error as a key source of instability in current methods. Bootstrapping error is due to bootstrapping from actions that lie outside of the training data distribution, and it accumulates via the Bellman backup operator. We theoretically analyze bootstrapping error, and demonstrate how carefully constraining action selection in the backup can mitigate it. Based on our analysis, we propose a practical algorithm, bootstrapping error accumulation reduction (BEAR). We demonstrate that BEAR is able to learn robustly from different off-policy distributions, including random and suboptimal demonstrations, on a range of continuous control tasks.

We present state advantage weighting for offline reinforcement learning (RL). In contrast to action advantage $A(s,a)$ that we commonly adopt in QSA learning, we leverage state advantage $A(s,s^\prime)$ and QSS learning for offline RL, hence decoupling the action from values. We expect the agent can get to the high-reward state and the action is determined by how the agent can get to that corresponding state. Experiments on D4RL datasets show that our proposed method can achieve remarkable performance against the common baselines. Furthermore, our method shows good generalization capability when transferring from offline to online.