Learning causal structure from observational data often assumes that we observe independent and identically distributed (i.\,i.\,d) data. The traditional approach aims to find a graphical representation that encodes the same set of conditional independence relationships as those present in the observed distribution. It is known that under i.\,i.\,d assumption, even with infinite data, there is a limit to how fine-grained a causal structure we can identify. To overcome this limitation, recent work has explored using data originating from different, related environments to learn richer causal structure. These approaches implicitly rely on the independent causal mechanisms (ICM) principle, which postulates that the mechanism giving rise to an effect given its causes and the mechanism which generates the causes do not inform or influence each other. Thus, components of the causal model can independently change from environment to environment. Despite its wide application in machine learning and causal inference, there is a lack of statistical formalization of the ICM principle and how it enables identification of richer causal structures from grouped data. Here we present new causal de Finetti theorems which offer a first statistical formalization of ICM principle and show how causal structure identification is possible from exchangeable data. Our work provides theoretical justification for a broad range of techniques leveraging multi-environment data to learn causal structure.

也称为（非参数）结构方程模型（SEMS）的结构因果模型（SCM）被广泛用于因果建模目的。特别是，也称为递归SEM的无循环SCMS，形成了一个研究的SCM的良好的子类，概括了因果贝叶斯网络来允许潜在混淆。在本文中，我们调查了更多普通环境中的SCM，允许存在潜在混杂器和周期。我们展示在存在周期中，无循环SCM的许多方便的性质通常不会持有：它们并不总是有解决方案;它们并不总是诱导独特的观察，介入和反事实分布;边缘化并不总是存在，如果存在边缘模型并不总是尊重潜在的投影;他们并不总是满足马尔可夫财产;他们的图表并不总是与他们的因果语义一致。我们证明，对于SCM一般，这些属性中的每一个都在某些可加工条件下保持。我们的工作概括了SCM的结果，迄今为止仅针对某些特殊情况所知的周期。我们介绍了将循环循环设置扩展到循环设置的简单SCM的类，同时保留了许多方便的无环SCM的性能。用本文，我们的目标是为SCM提供统计因果建模的一般理论的基础。

In this review, we discuss approaches for learning causal structure from data, also called causal discovery. In particular, we focus on approaches for learning directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) and various generalizations which allow for some variables to be unobserved in the available data. We devote special attention to two fundamental combinatorial aspects of causal structure learning. First, we discuss the structure of the search space over causal graphs. Second, we discuss the structure of equivalence classes over causal graphs, i.e., sets of graphs which represent what can be learned from observational data alone, and how these equivalence classes can be refined by adding interventional data.

我们研究了在存在潜在变量存在下从数据重建因果图形模型的问题。感兴趣的主要问题是在潜在变量上恢复因果结构，同时允许一般，可能在变量之间的非线性依赖性。在许多实际问题中，原始观测之间的依赖性（例如，图像中的像素）的依赖性比某些高级潜在特征（例如概念或对象）之间的依赖性要小得多，这是感兴趣的设置。我们提供潜在表示和潜在潜在因果模型的条件可通过减少到混合甲骨文来识别。这些结果突出了学习混合模型的顺序的良好研究问题与观察到和解开的基础结构的问题之间的富裕问题之间的有趣连接。证明是建设性的，并导致几种算法用于明确重建全图形模型。我们讨论高效算法并提供说明实践中算法的实验。

我们考虑代表代理模型的问题，该模型使用我们称之为CSTREES的阶段树模型的适当子类对离散数据编码离散数据的原因模型。我们表明，可以通过集合表达CSTREE编码的上下文专用信息。由于并非所有阶段树模型都承认此属性，CSTREES是一个子类，可提供特定于上下文的因果信息的透明，直观和紧凑的表示。我们证明了CSTREEES承认全球性马尔可夫属性，它产生了模型等价的图形标准，概括了Verma和珍珠的DAG模型。这些结果延伸到一般介入模型设置，使CSTREES第一族的上下文专用模型允许介入模型等价的特征。我们还为CSTREE的最大似然估计器提供了一种封闭式公式，并使用它来表示贝叶斯信息标准是该模型类的本地一致的分数函数。在模拟和实际数据上分析了CSTHEELE的性能，在那里我们看到与CSTREELE而不是一般上演树的建模不会导致预测精度的显着损失，同时提供了特定于上下文的因果信息的DAG表示。

D分隔标准通过某些条件独立性检测到关节概率分布与定向无环图的兼容性。在这项工作中，我们通过引入因果模型的分类定义，D分隔的分类概念，并证明了D-Exaration Criterion的抽象版本，从而在分类概率理论的背景下研究了这个问题。这种方法有两个主要好处。首先，分类D分隔是基于拓扑连接的非常直观的标准。其次，我们的结果适用于度量理论概率（具有标准的鲍尔空间），因此提供了与局部和全球马尔可夫属性等效性具有因果关系兼容性的简洁证明。

Linear structural causal models (SCMs)-- in which each observed variable is generated by a subset of the other observed variables as well as a subset of the exogenous sources-- are pervasive in causal inference and casual discovery. However, for the task of causal discovery, existing work almost exclusively focus on the submodel where each observed variable is associated with a distinct source with non-zero variance. This results in the restriction that no observed variable can deterministically depend on other observed variables or latent confounders. In this paper, we extend the results on structure learning by focusing on a subclass of linear SCMs which do not have this property, i.e., models in which observed variables can be causally affected by any subset of the sources, and are allowed to be a deterministic function of other observed variables or latent confounders. This allows for a more realistic modeling of influence or information propagation in systems. We focus on the task of causal discovery form observational data generated from a member of this subclass. We derive a set of necessary and sufficient conditions for unique identifiability of the causal structure. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work that gives identifiability results for causal discovery under both latent confounding and deterministic relationships. Further, we propose an algorithm for recovering the underlying causal structure when the aforementioned conditions are satisfied. We validate our theoretical results both on synthetic and real datasets.

贝叶斯网络是一组$ N $随机变量的定向非循环图（DAG）（用顶点标识）;贝叶斯网络分布（BND）是RV的概率分布，即在图中是马尔可夫的。这种模型的有限混合物是在较大的图表上对这些变量的投影，其具有额外的“隐藏”（或“隐藏”（或“潜伏”）随机变量$ U $，范围在$ \ {1，\ ldots，k \ $，以及从$ U $到其他每个其他顶点的指示边。这种类型的模型是对因因果推理的基础，其中$ U $模型是一种混杂效果。一个非常特殊的案例一直是在理论文学中的长期兴趣：空图。这种分布只是$ k $产品分布的混合。考虑到k $产品分布的混合物的联合分布，以识别产物分布及其混合重量，这一直是长期的问题。我们的结果是：（1）我们改善了从$ \ exp（o（k ^ 2））$到$ \ exp（o（k \ log k）的$ k $产品分布的混合物的示例复杂性（和运行时） ）$。鉴于已知的$ \ exp（\ omega（k））$下限，这几乎可以最好。 （2）我们为非空图表提供了第一算法。最大程度为$ \ delta $的图表的复杂性为$ \ exp（o（k（\ delta ^ 2 + \ log k）））$。 （上述复杂性是近似和抑制辅助参数的依赖性。）

A common assumption in causal inference from observational data is that there is no hidden confounding. Yet it is, in general, impossible to verify the presence of hidden confounding factors from a single dataset. Under the assumption of independent causal mechanisms underlying the data generating process, we demonstrate a way to detect unobserved confounders when having multiple observational datasets coming from different environments. We present a theory for testable conditional independencies that are only absent during hidden confounding and examine cases where we violate its assumptions: degenerate & dependent mechanisms, and faithfulness violations. Additionally, we propose a procedure to test these independencies and study its empirical finite-sample behavior using simulation studies and semi-synthetic data based on a real-world dataset. In most cases, our theory correctly predicts the presence of hidden confounding, particularly when the confounding bias is~large.

We explore how observational and interventional causal discovery methods can be combined. A state-of-the-art observational causal discovery algorithm for time series capable of handling latent confounders and contemporaneous effects, called LPCMCI, is extended to profit from casual constraints found through randomized control trials. Numerical results show that, given perfect interventional constraints, the reconstructed structural causal models (SCMs) of the extended LPCMCI allow 84.6% of the time for the optimal prediction of the target variable. The implementation of interventional and observational causal discovery is modular, allowing causal constraints from other sources. The second part of this thesis investigates the question of regret minimizing control by simultaneously learning a causal model and planning actions through the causal model. The idea is that an agent to optimize a measured variable first learns the system's mechanics through observational causal discovery. The agent then intervenes on the most promising variable with randomized values allowing for the exploitation and generation of new interventional data. The agent then uses the interventional data to enhance the causal model further, allowing improved actions the next time. The extended LPCMCI can be favorable compared to the original LPCMCI algorithm. The numerical results show that detecting and using interventional constraints leads to reconstructed SCMs that allow 60.9% of the time for the optimal prediction of the target variable in contrast to the baseline of 53.6% when using the original LPCMCI algorithm. Furthermore, the induced average regret decreases from 1.2 when using the original LPCMCI algorithm to 1.0 when using the extended LPCMCI algorithm with interventional discovery.

研究了与隐藏变量有关的非循环图（DAG）相关的因果模型中因果效应的识别理论。然而，由于估计它们输出的识别功能的复杂性，因此未耗尽相应的算法。在这项工作中，我们弥合了识别和估算涉及单一治疗和单一结果的人口水平因果效应之间的差距。我们派生了基于功能的估计，在大类隐藏变量DAG中表现出对所识别的效果的双重稳健性，其中治疗满足简单的图形标准;该类包括模型，产生调整和前门功能作为特殊情况。我们还提供必要的和充分条件，其中隐藏变量DAG的统计模型是非分子饱和的，并且意味着对观察到的数据分布没有平等约束。此外，我们推导了一类重要的隐藏变量DAG，这意味着观察到观察到的数据分布等同于完全观察到的DAG等同于（最高的相等约束）。在这些DAG类中，我们推出了实现兴趣目标的半导体效率界限的估计估计值，该估计是治疗满足我们的图形标准的感兴趣的目标。最后，我们提供了一种完整的识别算法，可直接产生基于权重的估计策略，以了解隐藏可变因果模型中的任何可识别效果。

我们分析了在没有特定分布假设的常规设置中从观察数据的学习中学循环图形模型的复杂性。我们的方法是信息定理，并使用本地马尔可夫边界搜索程序，以便在基础图形模型中递归地构建祖先集。也许令人惊讶的是，我们表明，对于某些图形集合，一个简单的前向贪婪搜索算法（即没有向后修剪阶段）足以学习每个节点的马尔可夫边界。这显着提高了我们在节点的数量中显示的样本复杂性。然后应用这一点以在从文献中概括存在现有条件的新型标识性条件下学习整个图。作为独立利益的问题，我们建立了有限样本的保障，以解决从数据中恢复马尔可夫边界的问题。此外，我们将我们的结果应用于特殊情况的Polytrees，其中假设简化，并提供了多项识别的明确条件，并且在多项式时间中可以识别和可知。我们进一步说明了算法在仿真研究中易于实现的算法的性能。我们的方法是普遍的，用于无需分布假设的离散或连续分布，并且由于这种棚灯对有效地学习来自数据的定向图形模型结构所需的最小假设。

概括指向的最大祖先图形，我们介绍了一类图形模型，用于表示与未观察的变量的多变量时间序列的多变量时间序列的多变量的多种定样和定期分配时间步骤中的时间滞后特定因果关系和独立性。我们完全阐述了这些图表，并表明他们需要超出以前在文献中被考虑的那些的限制。这允许在没有强加的额外假设的情况下更强的因果推断。在指向部分祖先图的概括中，我们进一步介绍了新颖类型的图表的马尔可夫等同类的图形表示，并显示这些比当前最先进的因果发现算法学习的更具信息量。我们还通过增加观察时间步骤的数量来分析所获得的附加信息。

Variational autoencoders and Helmholtz machines use a recognition network (encoder) to approximate the posterior distribution of a generative model (decoder). In this paper we study the necessary and sufficient properties of a recognition network so that it can model the true posterior distribution exactly. These results are derived in the general context of probabilistic graphical modelling / Bayesian networks, for which the network represents a set of conditional independence statements. We derive both global conditions, in terms of d-separation, and local conditions for the recognition network to have the desired qualities. It turns out that for the local conditions the property perfectness (for every node, all parents are joined) plays an important role.

估计平均因果效应的理想回归（如果有）是什么？我们在离散协变量的设置中研究了这个问题，从而得出了各种分层估计器的有限样本方差的表达式。这种方法阐明了许多广泛引用的结果的基本统计现象。我们的博览会结合了研究因果效应估计的三种不同的方法论传统的见解：潜在结果，因果图和具有加性误差的结构模型。

We consider the problem of recovering the causal structure underlying observations from different experimental conditions when the targets of the interventions in each experiment are unknown. We assume a linear structural causal model with additive Gaussian noise and consider interventions that perturb their targets while maintaining the causal relationships in the system. Different models may entail the same distributions, offering competing causal explanations for the given observations. We fully characterize this equivalence class and offer identifiability results, which we use to derive a greedy algorithm called GnIES to recover the equivalence class of the data-generating model without knowledge of the intervention targets. In addition, we develop a novel procedure to generate semi-synthetic data sets with known causal ground truth but distributions closely resembling those of a real data set of choice. We leverage this procedure and evaluate the performance of GnIES on synthetic, real, and semi-synthetic data sets. Despite the strong Gaussian distributional assumption, GnIES is robust to an array of model violations and competitive in recovering the causal structure in small- to large-sample settings. We provide, in the Python packages "gnies" and "sempler", implementations of GnIES and our semi-synthetic data generation procedure.

常用图是表示和可视化因果关系的。对于少量变量，这种方法提供了简洁和清晰的方案的视图。随着下属的变量数量增加，图形方法可能变得不切实际，并且表示的清晰度丢失。变量的聚类是减少因果图大小的自然方式，但如果任意实施，可能会错误地改变因果关系的基本属性。我们定义了一种特定类型的群集，称为Transit Cluster，保证在某些条件下保留因果效应的可识别性属性。我们提供了一种用于在给定图中查找所有传输群集的声音和完整的算法，并演示集群如何简化因果效应的识别。我们还研究了逆问题，其中一个人以群集的图形开始，寻找扩展图，其中因果效应的可识别性属性保持不变。我们表明这种结构稳健性与过境集群密切相关。

我们提出了一个新的因果贡献的概念，它描述了在DAG中目标节点上的节点的“内在”部分。我们显示，在某些情况下，现有的因果量化方法无法完全捕获此概念。通过以上游噪声术语递归地将每个节点写入每个节点，我们将每个节点添加的内部信息分开从其祖先所获得的每个节点添加的内部信息。要将内在信息解释为因果贡献，我们考虑“结构保留干预”，该介绍每个节点随机化，以一种模仿通常依赖父母的方式，也不会扰乱观察到的联合分布。为了获得跨越节点的任意排序的措施，我们提出了基于福利的对称化。我们描述了对方差和熵的贡献分析，但可以类似地定义对其他目标度量的贡献。

人们对利用置换推理来搜索定向的无环因果模型的方法越来越兴趣，包括Teysier和Kohler和Solus，Wang和Uhler的GSP的“订购搜索”。我们通过基于置换的操作Tuck扩展了后者的方法，并开发了一类算法，即掌握，这些算法在越来越弱的假设下比忠诚度更有效且方向保持一致。最放松的掌握形式优于模拟中许多最新的因果搜索算法，即使对于具有超过100个变量的密集图和图形，也可以有效，准确地搜索。

最近，已经提出了利用预测模型在不断变化的环境方面的不变性来推断响应变量的因果父母的子集的不变性。如果环境仅影响少数基本机制，则例如不变因果预测（ICP）确定的子集可能很小，甚至是空的。我们介绍了最小不变性的概念，并提出了不变的血统搜索（IAS）。在其人群版本中，IAS输出了一个仅包含响应祖先的集合，并且是ICP输出的超集。当应用于数据时，如果不变性的基础测试具有渐近水平和功率，则相应的保证会渐近。我们开发可扩展算法并在模拟和真实数据上执行实验。