智能交通灯管制系统(ITLC)是一个典型的多机构系统(MAS),包括多条道路和交通信号灯。为ITLCS构造MAS模型是减轻交通拥堵的基础。 MAS的现有方法主要基于多代理深度强化学习(MADRL)。尽管MABRL的深神经网络(DNN)有效,但训练时间很长,并且很难追踪参数。最近,广泛的学习系统(BLS)提供了一种选择性的方法,可以通过平坦的网络在深层神经网络中学习。此外,广泛的强化学习(BRL)在单一代理深层增强学习(SADRL)问题中扩展了BLS,并具有有希望的结果。但是,BRL不关注代理的复杂结构和相互作用。由MADRL的特征和BRL问题的激励,我们提出了一个多机构的广泛强化学习(MABRL)框架,以探索BLS在MAS中的功能。首先,与大多数使用一系列深神经网络结构的MADRL方法不同,我们用广泛的网络对每个代理进行建模。然后,我们引入了动态的自我循环交互机制,以确认“ 3W”信息:何时进行交互,代理需要考虑哪些信息,要传输哪些信息。最后,我们根据智能交通灯控制场景进行实验。我们将MABRL方法与六种不同的方法进行比较,并在三个数据集上进行实验结果验证了MABRL的有效性。
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许多现实世界的应用程序都可以作为多机构合作问题进行配置,例如网络数据包路由和自动驾驶汽车的协调。深入增强学习(DRL)的出现为通过代理和环境的相互作用提供了一种有前途的多代理合作方法。但是,在政策搜索过程中,传统的DRL解决方案遭受了多个代理具有连续动作空间的高维度。此外,代理商政策的动态性使训练非平稳。为了解决这些问题,我们建议采用高级决策和低水平的个人控制,以进行有效的政策搜索,提出一种分层增强学习方法。特别是,可以在高级离散的动作空间中有效地学习多个代理的合作。同时,低水平的个人控制可以减少为单格强化学习。除了分层增强学习外,我们还建议对手建模网络在学习过程中对其他代理的政策进行建模。与端到端的DRL方法相反,我们的方法通过以层次结构将整体任务分解为子任务来降低学习的复杂性。为了评估我们的方法的效率,我们在合作车道变更方案中进行了现实世界中的案例研究。模拟和现实世界实验都表明我们的方法在碰撞速度和收敛速度中的优越性。
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多代理深入的强化学习已应用于解决各种离散或连续动作空间的各种复杂问题,并取得了巨大的成功。但是,大多数实际环境不能仅通过离散的动作空间或连续的动作空间来描述。而且很少有作品曾经利用深入的加固学习(DRL)来解决混合动作空间的多代理问题。因此,我们提出了一种新颖的算法:深层混合软性角色 - 批评(MAHSAC)来填补这一空白。该算法遵循集中式训练但分散执行(CTDE)范式,并扩展软actor-Critic算法(SAC),以根据最大熵在多机构环境中处理混合动作空间问题。我们的经验在一个简单的多代理粒子世界上运行,具有连续的观察和离散的动作空间以及一些基本的模拟物理。实验结果表明,MAHSAC在训练速度,稳定性和抗干扰能力方面具有良好的性能。同时,它在合作场景和竞争性场景中胜过现有的独立深层学习方法。
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将深度强化学习(DRL)扩展到多代理领域的研究已经解决了许多复杂的问题,并取得了重大成就。但是,几乎所有这些研究都只关注离散或连续的动作空间,而且很少有作品曾经使用过多代理的深度强化学习来实现现实世界中的环境问题,这些问题主要具有混合动作空间。因此,在本文中,我们提出了两种算法:深层混合软性角色批评(MAHSAC)和多代理混合杂种深层确定性政策梯度(MAHDDPG)来填补这一空白。这两种算法遵循集中式培训和分散执行(CTDE)范式,并可以解决混合动作空间问题。我们的经验在多代理粒子环境上运行,这是一个简单的多代理粒子世界,以及一些基本的模拟物理。实验结果表明,这些算法具有良好的性能。
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增强学习算法需要大量样品;这通常会限制他们的现实应用程序在简单的任务上。在多代理任务中,这种挑战更为出色,因为操作的每个步骤都需要进行沟通,转移或资源。这项工作旨在通过基于模型的学习来提高多代理控制的数据效率。我们考虑了代理商合作并仅与邻居进行当地交流的网络系统,并提出了基于模型的政策优化框架(DMPO)。在我们的方法中,每个代理都会学习一个动态模型,以预测未来的状态并通过通信广播其预测,然后在模型推出下训练策略。为了减轻模型生成数据的偏见,我们限制了用于产生近视推出的模型使用量,从而减少了模型生成的复合误差。为了使策略更新的独立性有关,我们引入了扩展的价值函数,理论上证明了由此产生的策略梯度是与真实策略梯度的紧密近似。我们在几个智能运输系统的基准上评估了我们的算法,这些智能运输系统是连接的自动驾驶汽车控制任务(FLOW和CACC)和自适应交通信号控制(ATSC)。经验结果表明,我们的方法可以实现卓越的数据效率,并使用真实模型匹配无模型方法的性能。
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深度强化学习(DRL)赋予了各种人工智能领域,包括模式识别,机器人技术,推荐系统和游戏。同样,图神经网络(GNN)也证明了它们在图形结构数据的监督学习方面的出色表现。最近,GNN与DRL用于图形结构环境的融合引起了很多关注。本文对这些混合动力作品进行了全面评论。这些作品可以分为两类:(1)算法增强,其中DRL和GNN相互补充以获得更好的实用性; (2)特定于应用程序的增强,其中DRL和GNN相互支持。这种融合有效地解决了工程和生命科学方面的各种复杂问题。基于审查,我们进一步分析了融合这两个领域的适用性和好处,尤其是在提高通用性和降低计算复杂性方面。最后,集成DRL和GNN的关键挑战以及潜在的未来研究方向被突出显示,这将引起更广泛的机器学习社区的关注。
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With the breakthrough of AlphaGo, deep reinforcement learning becomes a recognized technique for solving sequential decision-making problems. Despite its reputation, data inefficiency caused by its trial and error learning mechanism makes deep reinforcement learning hard to be practical in a wide range of areas. Plenty of methods have been developed for sample efficient deep reinforcement learning, such as environment modeling, experience transfer, and distributed modifications, amongst which, distributed deep reinforcement learning has shown its potential in various applications, such as human-computer gaming, and intelligent transportation. In this paper, we conclude the state of this exciting field, by comparing the classical distributed deep reinforcement learning methods, and studying important components to achieve efficient distributed learning, covering single player single agent distributed deep reinforcement learning to the most complex multiple players multiple agents distributed deep reinforcement learning. Furthermore, we review recently released toolboxes that help to realize distributed deep reinforcement learning without many modifications of their non-distributed versions. By analyzing their strengths and weaknesses, a multi-player multi-agent distributed deep reinforcement learning toolbox is developed and released, which is further validated on Wargame, a complex environment, showing usability of the proposed toolbox for multiple players and multiple agents distributed deep reinforcement learning under complex games. Finally, we try to point out challenges and future trends, hoping this brief review can provide a guide or a spark for researchers who are interested in distributed deep reinforcement learning.
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在多代理系统中,植入是一个非常具有挑战性的问题。传统的羊群方法还需要完全了解环境和控制模型。在本文中,我们建议在羊群任务中进化多代理增强学习(EMARL),这是一种混合算法,将合作和竞争与很少的先验知识相结合。至于合作,我们根据BOIDS模型设计了代理商对羊群任务的奖励。在竞争中,具有高健身的代理商被设计为高级代理商,并且那些健身较低的代理商被设计为初中,让初级代理商随机继承了高级代理人的参数。为了加强竞争,我们还设计了一种进化选择机制,该机制在羊群任务中显示出对信用分配的有效性。一系列具有挑战性和自我对比的基准测试的实验结果表明,EMARL显着超过了完整的竞争或合作方法。
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流动性和流量的许多方案都涉及多种不同的代理,需要合作以找到共同解决方案。行为计划的最新进展使用强化学习以寻找有效和绩效行为策略。但是,随着自动驾驶汽车和车辆对X通信变得越来越成熟,只有使用单身独立代理的解决方案在道路上留下了潜在的性能增长。多代理增强学习(MARL)是一个研究领域,旨在为彼此相互作用的多种代理找到最佳解决方案。这项工作旨在将该领域的概述介绍给研究人员的自主行动能力。我们首先解释Marl并介绍重要的概念。然后,我们讨论基于Marl算法的主要范式,并概述每个范式中最先进的方法和思想。在这种背景下,我们调查了MAL在自动移动性场景中的应用程序,并概述了现有的场景和实现。
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In this work, we propose a self-supervised multi-agent system, termed a memory-like adaptive modeling multi-agent learning system (MAMMALS), that realizes online learning towards behavioral pattern clustering tasks for time series. Encoding the visual behaviors as discrete time series(DTS), and training and modeling them in the multi-agent system with a bio-memory-like form. We finally implemented a fully decentralized multi-agent system design framework and completed its feasibility verification in a surveillance video application scenario on vehicle path clustering. In multi-agent learning, using learning methods designed for individual agents will typically perform poorly globally because of the behavior of ignoring the synergy between agents.
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在自主驾驶的复杂情况下,培训多个代理商以进行安全和合作的控制是一个挑战。对于一小群汽车,本文提出了麻木,这是一种培训多个代理商的新方法。 Lepus采用了一种纯粹的合作方式来培训多个代理,以策略网络的共享参数和多个代理的共享奖励函数为特色。特别是,Lepus通过对抗过程预先培训政策网络,提高其协作决策能力并进一步促进汽车驾驶的稳定性。此外,由于减轻了稀疏奖励的问题,Lepus通过结合随机网络和蒸馏网络从专家轨迹中学习了近似奖励功能。我们在Madras模拟平台上进行了广泛的实验。实验结果表明,通过麻法训练的多种代理可以避免同时驾驶时尽可能多的碰撞并超越其他四种方法,即DDPG-FDE,PSDDPG,MADDPG和MAGAIL和MAGAIL(DDPG)(DDPG)在稳定性方面。
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大型人口系统的分析和控制对研究和工程的各个领域引起了极大的兴趣,从机器人群的流行病学到经济学和金融。一种越来越流行和有效的方法来实现多代理系统中的顺序决策,这是通过多机构增强学习,因为它允许对高度复杂的系统进行自动和无模型的分析。但是,可伸缩性的关键问题使控制和增强学习算法的设计变得复杂,尤其是在具有大量代理的系统中。尽管强化学习在许多情况下都发现了经验成功,但许多代理商的问题很快就变得棘手了,需要特别考虑。在这项调查中,我们将阐明当前的方法,以通过多代理强化学习以及通过诸如平均场游戏,集体智能或复杂的网络理论等研究领域进行仔细理解和分析大型人口系统。这些经典独立的主题领域提供了多种理解或建模大型人口系统的方法,这可能非常适合将来的可拖动MARL算法制定。最后,我们调查了大规模控制的潜在应用领域,并确定了实用系统中学习算法的富有成果的未来应用。我们希望我们的调查可以为理论和应用科学的初级和高级研究人员提供洞察力和未来的方向。
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Cooperative multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) has achieved significant results, most notably by leveraging the representation-learning abilities of deep neural networks. However, large centralized approaches quickly become infeasible as the number of agents scale, and fully decentralized approaches can miss important opportunities for information sharing and coordination. Furthermore, not all agents are equal -- in some cases, individual agents may not even have the ability to send communication to other agents or explicitly model other agents. This paper considers the case where there is a single, powerful, \emph{central agent} that can observe the entire observation space, and there are multiple, low-powered \emph{local agents} that can only receive local observations and are not able to communicate with each other. The central agent's job is to learn what message needs to be sent to different local agents based on the global observations, not by centrally solving the entire problem and sending action commands, but by determining what additional information an individual agent should receive so that it can make a better decision. In this work we present our MARL algorithm \algo, describe where it would be most applicable, and implement it in the cooperative navigation and multi-agent walker domains. Empirical results show that 1) learned communication does indeed improve system performance, 2) results generalize to heterogeneous local agents, and 3) results generalize to different reward structures.
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Reinforcement learning (RL) is one of the most important branches of AI. Due to its capacity for self-adaption and decision-making in dynamic environments, reinforcement learning has been widely applied in multiple areas, such as healthcare, data markets, autonomous driving, and robotics. However, some of these applications and systems have been shown to be vulnerable to security or privacy attacks, resulting in unreliable or unstable services. A large number of studies have focused on these security and privacy problems in reinforcement learning. However, few surveys have provided a systematic review and comparison of existing problems and state-of-the-art solutions to keep up with the pace of emerging threats. Accordingly, we herein present such a comprehensive review to explain and summarize the challenges associated with security and privacy in reinforcement learning from a new perspective, namely that of the Markov Decision Process (MDP). In this survey, we first introduce the key concepts related to this area. Next, we cover the security and privacy issues linked to the state, action, environment, and reward function of the MDP process, respectively. We further highlight the special characteristics of security and privacy methodologies related to reinforcement learning. Finally, we discuss the possible future research directions within this area.
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未来的互联网涉及几种新兴技术,例如5G和5G网络,车辆网络,无人机(UAV)网络和物联网(IOT)。此外,未来的互联网变得异质并分散了许多相关网络实体。每个实体可能需要做出本地决定,以在动态和不确定的网络环境下改善网络性能。最近使用标准学习算法,例如单药强化学习(RL)或深入强化学习(DRL),以使每个网络实体作为代理人通过与未知环境进行互动来自适应地学习最佳决策策略。但是,这种算法未能对网络实体之间的合作或竞争进行建模,而只是将其他实体视为可能导致非平稳性问题的环境的一部分。多机构增强学习(MARL)允许每个网络实体不仅观察环境,还可以观察其他实体的政策来学习其最佳政策。结果,MAL可以显着提高网络实体的学习效率,并且最近已用于解决新兴网络中的各种问题。在本文中,我们因此回顾了MAL在新兴网络中的应用。特别是,我们提供了MARL的教程,以及对MARL在下一代互联网中的应用进行全面调查。特别是,我们首先介绍单代机Agent RL和MARL。然后,我们回顾了MAL在未来互联网中解决新兴问题的许多应用程序。这些问题包括网络访问,传输电源控制,计算卸载,内容缓存,数据包路由,无人机网络的轨迹设计以及网络安全问题。
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In this paper, we consider the inventory management (IM) problem where we need to make replenishment decisions for a large number of stock keeping units (SKUs) to balance their supply and demand. In our setting, the constraint on the shared resources (such as the inventory capacity) couples the otherwise independent control for each SKU. We formulate the problem with this structure as Shared-Resource Stochastic Game (SRSG)and propose an efficient algorithm called Context-aware Decentralized PPO (CD-PPO). Through extensive experiments, we demonstrate that CD-PPO can accelerate the learning procedure compared with standard MARL algorithms.
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协作多代理增强学习(MARL)已在许多实际应用中广泛使用,在许多实际应用中,每个代理商都根据自己的观察做出决定。大多数主流方法在对分散的局部实用程序函数进行建模时,将每个局部观察结果视为完整的。但是,他们忽略了这样一个事实,即可以将局部观察信息进一步分为几个实体,只有一部分实体有助于建模推理。此外,不同实体的重要性可能会随着时间而变化。为了提高分散政策的性能,使用注意机制用于捕获本地信息的特征。然而,现有的注意模型依赖于密集的完全连接的图,并且无法更好地感知重要状态。为此,我们提出了一个稀疏的状态MARL(S2RL)框架,该框架利用稀疏的注意机制将无关的信息丢弃在局部观察中。通过自我注意力和稀疏注意机制估算局部效用函数,然后将其合并为标准的关节价值函数和中央评论家的辅助关节价值函数。我们将S2RL框架设计为即插即用的模块,使其足够一般,可以应用于各种方法。关于Starcraft II的广泛实验表明,S2RL可以显着提高许多最新方法的性能。
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高度动态的移动ad-hoc网络(MANET)仍然是开发和部署强大,高效和可扩展的路由协议的最具挑战性环境之一。在本文中,我们提出了DeepCQ +路由协议,以一种新颖的方式将新兴的多代理深度增强学习(Madrl)技术集成到现有的基于Q学习的路由协议及其变体中,并在各种拓扑结构中实现了持续更高的性能和移动配置。在保持基于Q学习的路由协议的整体协议结构的同时,DeepCQ +通过精心设计的Madrl代理替换静态配置的参数化阈值和手写规则,使得不需要这些参数的配置。广泛的模拟表明,与其基于Q学习的对应物相比,DeptCQ +产生的端到端吞吐量显着增加了端到端延迟(跳数)的明显劣化。在定性方面,也许更重要的是,Deepcq +在许多情况下维持了非常相似的性能提升,即在网络尺寸,移动条件和交通动态方面没有接受过培训。据我们所知,这是Madrl框架的第一次成功应用MANET路由问题,即使在训练有素的场景范围之外的环境中,即使在训练范围之外的环境中也能够高度的可扩展性和鲁棒性。这意味着我们的基于Marl的DeepCQ +设计解决方案显着提高了基于Q学习的CQ +基线方法的性能,以进行比较,并提高其实用性和解释性,因为现实世界的MANET环境可能会在训练范围的MANET场景之外变化。讨论了进一步提高性能和可扩展性的增益的额外技术。
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Multi-agent settings remain a fundamental challenge in the reinforcement learning (RL) domain due to the partial observability and the lack of accurate real-time interactions across agents. In this paper, we propose a new method based on local communication learning to tackle the multi-agent RL (MARL) challenge within a large number of agents coexisting. First, we design a new communication protocol that exploits the ability of depthwise convolution to efficiently extract local relations and learn local communication between neighboring agents. To facilitate multi-agent coordination, we explicitly learn the effect of joint actions by taking the policies of neighboring agents as inputs. Second, we introduce the mean-field approximation into our method to reduce the scale of agent interactions. To more effectively coordinate behaviors of neighboring agents, we enhance the mean-field approximation by a supervised policy rectification network (PRN) for rectifying real-time agent interactions and by a learnable compensation term for correcting the approximation bias. The proposed method enables efficient coordination as well as outperforms several baseline approaches on the adaptive traffic signal control (ATSC) task and the StarCraft II multi-agent challenge (SMAC).
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Reinforcement Learning (RL) is currently one of the most commonly used techniques for traffic signal control (TSC), which can adaptively adjusted traffic signal phase and duration according to real-time traffic data. However, a fully centralized RL approach is beset with difficulties in a multi-network scenario because of exponential growth in state-action space with increasing intersections. Multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) can overcome the high-dimension problem by employing the global control of each local RL agent, but it also brings new challenges, such as the failure of convergence caused by the non-stationary Markov Decision Process (MDP). In this paper, we introduce an off-policy nash deep Q-Network (OPNDQN) algorithm, which mitigates the weakness of both fully centralized and MARL approaches. The OPNDQN algorithm solves the problem that traditional algorithms cannot be used in large state-action space traffic models by utilizing a fictitious game approach at each iteration to find the nash equilibrium among neighboring intersections, from which no intersection has incentive to unilaterally deviate. One of main advantages of OPNDQN is to mitigate the non-stationarity of multi-agent Markov process because it considers the mutual influence among neighboring intersections by sharing their actions. On the other hand, for training a large traffic network, the convergence rate of OPNDQN is higher than that of existing MARL approaches because it does not incorporate all state information of each agent. We conduct an extensive experiments by using Simulation of Urban MObility simulator (SUMO), and show the dominant superiority of OPNDQN over several existing MARL approaches in terms of average queue length, episode training reward and average waiting time.
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