流动性和流量的许多方案都涉及多种不同的代理,需要合作以找到共同解决方案。行为计划的最新进展使用强化学习以寻找有效和绩效行为策略。但是,随着自动驾驶汽车和车辆对X通信变得越来越成熟,只有使用单身独立代理的解决方案在道路上留下了潜在的性能增长。多代理增强学习(MARL)是一个研究领域,旨在为彼此相互作用的多种代理找到最佳解决方案。这项工作旨在将该领域的概述介绍给研究人员的自主行动能力。我们首先解释Marl并介绍重要的概念。然后,我们讨论基于Marl算法的主要范式,并概述每个范式中最先进的方法和思想。在这种背景下,我们调查了MAL在自动移动性场景中的应用程序,并概述了现有的场景和实现。
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大型人口系统的分析和控制对研究和工程的各个领域引起了极大的兴趣,从机器人群的流行病学到经济学和金融。一种越来越流行和有效的方法来实现多代理系统中的顺序决策,这是通过多机构增强学习,因为它允许对高度复杂的系统进行自动和无模型的分析。但是,可伸缩性的关键问题使控制和增强学习算法的设计变得复杂,尤其是在具有大量代理的系统中。尽管强化学习在许多情况下都发现了经验成功,但许多代理商的问题很快就变得棘手了,需要特别考虑。在这项调查中,我们将阐明当前的方法,以通过多代理强化学习以及通过诸如平均场游戏,集体智能或复杂的网络理论等研究领域进行仔细理解和分析大型人口系统。这些经典独立的主题领域提供了多种理解或建模大型人口系统的方法,这可能非常适合将来的可拖动MARL算法制定。最后,我们调查了大规模控制的潜在应用领域,并确定了实用系统中学习算法的富有成果的未来应用。我们希望我们的调查可以为理论和应用科学的初级和高级研究人员提供洞察力和未来的方向。
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未来的互联网涉及几种新兴技术,例如5G和5G网络,车辆网络,无人机(UAV)网络和物联网(IOT)。此外,未来的互联网变得异质并分散了许多相关网络实体。每个实体可能需要做出本地决定,以在动态和不确定的网络环境下改善网络性能。最近使用标准学习算法,例如单药强化学习(RL)或深入强化学习(DRL),以使每个网络实体作为代理人通过与未知环境进行互动来自适应地学习最佳决策策略。但是,这种算法未能对网络实体之间的合作或竞争进行建模,而只是将其他实体视为可能导致非平稳性问题的环境的一部分。多机构增强学习(MARL)允许每个网络实体不仅观察环境,还可以观察其他实体的政策来学习其最佳政策。结果,MAL可以显着提高网络实体的学习效率,并且最近已用于解决新兴网络中的各种问题。在本文中,我们因此回顾了MAL在新兴网络中的应用。特别是,我们提供了MARL的教程,以及对MARL在下一代互联网中的应用进行全面调查。特别是,我们首先介绍单代机Agent RL和MARL。然后,我们回顾了MAL在未来互联网中解决新兴问题的许多应用程序。这些问题包括网络访问,传输电源控制,计算卸载,内容缓存,数据包路由,无人机网络的轨迹设计以及网络安全问题。
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Reinforcement learning in multi-agent scenarios is important for real-world applications but presents challenges beyond those seen in singleagent settings. We present an actor-critic algorithm that trains decentralized policies in multiagent settings, using centrally computed critics that share an attention mechanism which selects relevant information for each agent at every timestep. This attention mechanism enables more effective and scalable learning in complex multiagent environments, when compared to recent approaches. Our approach is applicable not only to cooperative settings with shared rewards, but also individualized reward settings, including adversarial settings, as well as settings that do not provide global states, and it makes no assumptions about the action spaces of the agents. As such, it is flexible enough to be applied to most multi-agent learning problems.
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Cooperative multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) has achieved significant results, most notably by leveraging the representation-learning abilities of deep neural networks. However, large centralized approaches quickly become infeasible as the number of agents scale, and fully decentralized approaches can miss important opportunities for information sharing and coordination. Furthermore, not all agents are equal -- in some cases, individual agents may not even have the ability to send communication to other agents or explicitly model other agents. This paper considers the case where there is a single, powerful, \emph{central agent} that can observe the entire observation space, and there are multiple, low-powered \emph{local agents} that can only receive local observations and are not able to communicate with each other. The central agent's job is to learn what message needs to be sent to different local agents based on the global observations, not by centrally solving the entire problem and sending action commands, but by determining what additional information an individual agent should receive so that it can make a better decision. In this work we present our MARL algorithm \algo, describe where it would be most applicable, and implement it in the cooperative navigation and multi-agent walker domains. Empirical results show that 1) learned communication does indeed improve system performance, 2) results generalize to heterogeneous local agents, and 3) results generalize to different reward structures.
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在过去的几十年中,多机构增强学习(MARL)一直在学术界和行业受到广泛关注。 MAL中的基本问题之一是如何全面评估不同的方法。在视频游戏或简单的模拟场景中评估了大多数现有的MAL方法。这些方法在实际情况下,尤其是多机器人系统中的性能仍然未知。本文介绍了一个可扩展的仿真平台,用于多机器人增强学习(MRRL),称为SMART,以满足这一需求。确切地说,智能由两个组成部分组成:1)一个模拟环境,该环境为培训提供了各种复杂的交互场景,以及2)现实世界中的多机器人系统,用于现实的性能评估。此外,SMART提供了代理环境API,这些API是算法实现的插件。为了说明我们平台的实用性,我们就合作驾驶车道变更方案进行了案例研究。在案例研究的基础上,我们总结了MRRL的一些独特挑战,这些挑战很少被考虑。最后,我们为鼓励和增强MRRL研究的仿真环境,相关的基准任务和最先进的基线开放。
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Many real-world problems, such as network packet routing and the coordination of autonomous vehicles, are naturally modelled as cooperative multi-agent systems. There is a great need for new reinforcement learning methods that can efficiently learn decentralised policies for such systems. To this end, we propose a new multi-agent actor-critic method called counterfactual multi-agent (COMA) policy gradients. COMA uses a centralised critic to estimate the Q-function and decentralised actors to optimise the agents' policies. In addition, to address the challenges of multi-agent credit assignment, it uses a counterfactual baseline that marginalises out a single agent's action, while keeping the other agents' actions fixed. COMA also uses a critic representation that allows the counterfactual baseline to be computed efficiently in a single forward pass. We evaluate COMA in the testbed of StarCraft unit micromanagement, using a decentralised variant with significant partial observability. COMA significantly improves average performance over other multi-agent actorcritic methods in this setting, and the best performing agents are competitive with state-of-the-art centralised controllers that get access to the full state.
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许多现实世界的应用程序都可以作为多机构合作问题进行配置,例如网络数据包路由和自动驾驶汽车的协调。深入增强学习(DRL)的出现为通过代理和环境的相互作用提供了一种有前途的多代理合作方法。但是,在政策搜索过程中,传统的DRL解决方案遭受了多个代理具有连续动作空间的高维度。此外,代理商政策的动态性使训练非平稳。为了解决这些问题,我们建议采用高级决策和低水平的个人控制,以进行有效的政策搜索,提出一种分层增强学习方法。特别是,可以在高级离散的动作空间中有效地学习多个代理的合作。同时,低水平的个人控制可以减少为单格强化学习。除了分层增强学习外,我们还建议对手建模网络在学习过程中对其他代理的政策进行建模。与端到端的DRL方法相反,我们的方法通过以层次结构将整体任务分解为子任务来降低学习的复杂性。为了评估我们的方法的效率,我们在合作车道变更方案中进行了现实世界中的案例研究。模拟和现实世界实验都表明我们的方法在碰撞速度和收敛速度中的优越性。
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Communication is supposed to improve multi-agent collaboration and overall performance in cooperative Multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL). However, such improvements are prevalently limited in practice since most existing communication schemes ignore communication overheads (e.g., communication delays). In this paper, we demonstrate that ignoring communication delays has detrimental effects on collaborations, especially in delay-sensitive tasks such as autonomous driving. To mitigate this impact, we design a delay-aware multi-agent communication model (DACOM) to adapt communication to delays. Specifically, DACOM introduces a component, TimeNet, that is responsible for adjusting the waiting time of an agent to receive messages from other agents such that the uncertainty associated with delay can be addressed. Our experiments reveal that DACOM has a non-negligible performance improvement over other mechanisms by making a better trade-off between the benefits of communication and the costs of waiting for messages.
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政策梯度方法在多智能体增强学习中变得流行,但由于存在环境随机性和探索代理(即非公平性​​),它们遭受了高度的差异,这可能因信用分配难度而受到困扰。结果,需要一种方法,该方法不仅能够有效地解决上述两个问题,而且需要足够强大地解决各种任务。为此,我们提出了一种新的多代理政策梯度方法,称为强大的本地优势(ROLA)演员 - 评论家。 Rola允许每个代理人将个人动作值函数作为当地评论家,以及通过基于集中评论家的新型集中培训方法来改善环境不良。通过使用此本地批评,每个代理都计算基准,以减少对其策略梯度估计的差异,这导致含有其他代理的预期优势动作值,这些选项可以隐式提高信用分配。我们在各种基准测试中评估ROLA,并在许多最先进的多代理政策梯度算法上显示其鲁棒性和有效性。
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增强学习算法需要大量样品;这通常会限制他们的现实应用程序在简单的任务上。在多代理任务中,这种挑战更为出色,因为操作的每个步骤都需要进行沟通,转移或资源。这项工作旨在通过基于模型的学习来提高多代理控制的数据效率。我们考虑了代理商合作并仅与邻居进行当地交流的网络系统,并提出了基于模型的政策优化框架(DMPO)。在我们的方法中,每个代理都会学习一个动态模型,以预测未来的状态并通过通信广播其预测,然后在模型推出下训练策略。为了减轻模型生成数据的偏见,我们限制了用于产生近视推出的模型使用量,从而减少了模型生成的复合误差。为了使策略更新的独立性有关,我们引入了扩展的价值函数,理论上证明了由此产生的策略梯度是与真实策略梯度的紧密近似。我们在几个智能运输系统的基准上评估了我们的算法,这些智能运输系统是连接的自动驾驶汽车控制任务(FLOW和CACC)和自适应交通信号控制(ATSC)。经验结果表明,我们的方法可以实现卓越的数据效率,并使用真实模型匹配无模型方法的性能。
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With the development of deep representation learning, the domain of reinforcement learning (RL) has become a powerful learning framework now capable of learning complex policies in high dimensional environments. This review summarises deep reinforcement learning (DRL) algorithms and provides a taxonomy of automated driving tasks where (D)RL methods have been employed, while addressing key computational challenges in real world deployment of autonomous driving agents. It also delineates adjacent domains such as behavior cloning, imitation learning, inverse reinforcement learning that are related but are not classical RL algorithms. The role of simulators in training agents, methods to validate, test and robustify existing solutions in RL are discussed.
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This work considers the problem of learning cooperative policies in complex, partially observable domains without explicit communication. We extend three classes of single-agent deep reinforcement learning algorithms based on policy gradient, temporal-difference error, and actor-critic methods to cooperative multi-agent systems. We introduce a set of cooperative control tasks that includes tasks with discrete and continuous actions, as well as tasks that involve hundreds of agents. The three approaches are evaluated against each other using different neural architectures, training procedures, and reward structures. Using deep reinforcement learning with a curriculum learning scheme, our approach can solve problems that were previously considered intractable by most multi-agent reinforcement learning algorithms. We show that policy gradient methods tend to outperform both temporal-difference and actor-critic methods when using feed-forward neural architectures. We also show that recurrent policies, while more difficult to train, outperform feed-forward policies on our evaluation tasks.
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独立的强化学习算法没有理论保证,用于在多代理设置中找到最佳策略。然而,在实践中,先前的作品报告了在某些域中的独立算法和其他方面的良好性能。此外,文献中缺乏对独立算法的优势和弱点的全面研究。在本文中,我们对四个Pettingzoo环境进行了独立算法的性能的实证比较,这些环境跨越了三种主要类别的多助理环境,即合作,竞争和混合。我们表明,在完全可观察的环境中,独立的算法可以在协作和竞争环境中与多代理算法进行同步。对于混合环境,我们表明通过独立算法培训的代理商学会单独执行,但未能学会与盟友合作并与敌人竞争。我们还表明,添加重复性提高了合作部分可观察环境中独立算法的学习。
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Compared with model-based control and optimization methods, reinforcement learning (RL) provides a data-driven, learning-based framework to formulate and solve sequential decision-making problems. The RL framework has become promising due to largely improved data availability and computing power in the aviation industry. Many aviation-based applications can be formulated or treated as sequential decision-making problems. Some of them are offline planning problems, while others need to be solved online and are safety-critical. In this survey paper, we first describe standard RL formulations and solutions. Then we survey the landscape of existing RL-based applications in aviation. Finally, we summarize the paper, identify the technical gaps, and suggest future directions of RL research in aviation.
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在本文中,我们介绍了有关典型乘车共享系统中决策优化问题的强化学习方法的全面,深入的调查。涵盖了有关乘车匹配,车辆重新定位,乘车,路由和动态定价主题的论文。在过去的几年中,大多数文献都出现了,并且要继续解决一些核心挑战:模型复杂性,代理协调和多个杠杆的联合优化。因此,我们还引入了流行的数据集和开放式仿真环境,以促进进一步的研发。随后,我们讨论了有关该重要领域的强化学习研究的许多挑战和机会。
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自驱动粒子(SDP)描述了日常生活中常见的一类常见的多种子体系统,例如植绒鸟类和交通流量。在SDP系统中,每个代理商都追求自己的目标,并不断改变其与附近代理商的合作或竞争行为。手动设计用于此类SDP系统的控制器是耗时的,而产生的紧急行为往往是不可逼真的,也不是更广泛的。因此,SDP系统的现实模拟仍然具有挑战性。强化学习提供了一种吸引人的替代方案,用于自动化SDP控制器的开发。然而,以前的多档强化学习(Marl)方法将代理人定义为手头之前的队友或敌人,这未能捕获每个代理的作用的SDP的本质,即使在一个集中也变化或竞争。为了用Marl模拟SDP,一个关键挑战是协调代理的行为,同时仍然最大化个人目标。将交通仿真作为测试床,在这项工作中,我们开发了一种称为协调政策优化(Copo)的新型MARL方法,该方法包括社会心理学原理来学习SDP的神经控制器。实验表明,与各种度量标准的Marl基线相比,该方法可以实现优越的性能。明显的车辆明显地表现出复杂和多样化的社会行为,以提高整个人口的性能和安全性。演示视频和源代码可用于:https://decisionforce.github.io/copo/
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在包装交付,交通监控,搜索和救援操作以及军事战斗订婚等不同应用中,对使用无人驾驶汽车(UAV)(无人机)的需求越来越不断增加。在所有这些应用程序中,无人机用于自动导航环境 - 没有人类互动,执行特定任务并避免障碍。自主无人机导航通常是使用强化学习(RL)来完成的,在该学习中,代理在域中充当专家在避免障碍的同时导航环境。了解导航环境和算法限制在选择适当的RL算法以有效解决导航问题方面起着至关重要的作用。因此,本研究首先确定了无人机导航任务,并讨论导航框架和仿真软件。接下来,根据环境,算法特征,能力和不同无人机导航问题的应用程序对RL算法进行分类和讨论,这将帮助从业人员和研究人员为其无人机导航使用情况选择适当的RL算法。此外,确定的差距和机会将推动无人机导航研究。
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缩放多智能体增强学习的卓越障碍之一是为大量代理商分配给个别代理的行动。在本文中,我们通过呼叫\ yrest {部分奖励去耦}(prd)的方法来解决这一信用分配问题,该方法试图将大型合作多代理RL问题分解成涉及代理子集的解耦子问题,从而简化了信用分配。我们经验证明使用PRD在演员 - 批评算法中分解RL问题导致较低的差异策略梯度估计,这提高了各种其他跨越多个代理RL任务的数据效率,学习稳定性和渐近性能。演员 - 评论家方法。此外,我们还将我们的反事实多代理政策梯度(COMA),最先进的MARL算法以及经验证明我们的方法通过更好地利用代理商奖励流的信息来实现昏迷状态,以及启用最近的优势估计的进步。
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Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) swarms are considered as a promising technique for next-generation communication networks due to their flexibility, mobility, low cost, and the ability to collaboratively and autonomously provide services. Distributed learning (DL) enables UAV swarms to intelligently provide communication services, multi-directional remote surveillance, and target tracking. In this survey, we first introduce several popular DL algorithms such as federated learning (FL), multi-agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL), distributed inference, and split learning, and present a comprehensive overview of their applications for UAV swarms, such as trajectory design, power control, wireless resource allocation, user assignment, perception, and satellite communications. Then, we present several state-of-the-art applications of UAV swarms in wireless communication systems, such us reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS), virtual reality (VR), semantic communications, and discuss the problems and challenges that DL-enabled UAV swarms can solve in these applications. Finally, we describe open problems of using DL in UAV swarms and future research directions of DL enabled UAV swarms. In summary, this survey provides a comprehensive survey of various DL applications for UAV swarms in extensive scenarios.
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