物理引导的神经网络（PGNNS）代表了使用物理引导（PG）丢失功能（捕获具有已知物理学中的网络输出中的违规）培训的新出现类的神经网络，以及数据中包含的监督。 PGNN中的现有工作表明，使用恒定的折衷参数，在神经网络目标中添加单个PG损耗功能的功效，以确保更好的普遍性。然而，在具有竞争梯度方向的多个PG函数的存在中，需要自适应地调谐在训练过程中不同的PG损耗功能的贡献，以获得更广泛的解决方案。我们展示了在求解基于物理学的特征值方程的最低（或最高）特征向量的通用神经网络问题中竞争PG损失的存在，这在许多科学问题中通常遇到。我们提出了一种新的方法来处理竞争PG损失，并在量子力学和电磁繁殖中的两个激励应用中展示其在学习普遍解决方案中的功效。这项工作中使用的所有代码和数据都可以在https://github.com/jayroxis/cophy-pgnn获得。

物理信息的神经网络（PINN）是神经网络（NNS），它们作为神经网络本身的组成部分编码模型方程，例如部分微分方程（PDE）。如今，PINN是用于求解PDE，分数方程，积分分化方程和随机PDE的。这种新颖的方法已成为一个多任务学习框架，在该框架中，NN必须在减少PDE残差的同时拟合观察到的数据。本文对PINNS的文献进行了全面的综述：虽然该研究的主要目标是表征这些网络及其相关的优势和缺点。该综述还试图将出版物纳入更广泛的基于搭配的物理知识的神经网络，这些神经网络构成了香草·皮恩（Vanilla Pinn）以及许多其他变体，例如物理受限的神经网络（PCNN），各种HP-VPINN，变量HP-VPINN，VPINN，VPINN，变体。和保守的Pinn（CPINN）。该研究表明，大多数研究都集中在通过不同的激活功能，梯度优化技术，神经网络结构和损耗功能结构来定制PINN。尽管使用PINN的应用范围广泛，但通过证明其在某些情况下比有限元方法（FEM）等经典数值技术更可行的能力，但仍有可能的进步，最著名的是尚未解决的理论问题。

Recent years have witnessed a growth in mathematics for deep learning--which seeks a deeper understanding of the concepts of deep learning with mathematics, and explores how to make it more robust--and deep learning for mathematics, where deep learning algorithms are used to solve problems in mathematics. The latter has popularised the field of scientific machine learning where deep learning is applied to problems in scientific computing. Specifically, more and more neural network architectures have been developed to solve specific classes of partial differential equations (PDEs). Such methods exploit properties that are inherent to PDEs and thus solve the PDEs better than classical feed-forward neural networks, recurrent neural networks, and convolutional neural networks. This has had a great impact in the area of mathematical modeling where parametric PDEs are widely used to model most natural and physical processes arising in science and engineering, In this work, we review such methods and extend them for parametric studies as well as for solving the related inverse problems. We equally proceed to show their relevance in some industrial applications.

这本数字本书包含在物理模拟的背景下与深度学习相关的一切实际和全面的一切。尽可能多，所有主题都带有Jupyter笔记本的形式的动手代码示例，以便快速入门。除了标准的受监督学习的数据中，我们将看看物理丢失约束，更紧密耦合的学习算法，具有可微分的模拟，以及加强学习和不确定性建模。我们生活在令人兴奋的时期：这些方法具有从根本上改变计算机模拟可以实现的巨大潜力。

These notes were compiled as lecture notes for a course developed and taught at the University of the Southern California. They should be accessible to a typical engineering graduate student with a strong background in Applied Mathematics. The main objective of these notes is to introduce a student who is familiar with concepts in linear algebra and partial differential equations to select topics in deep learning. These lecture notes exploit the strong connections between deep learning algorithms and the more conventional techniques of computational physics to achieve two goals. First, they use concepts from computational physics to develop an understanding of deep learning algorithms. Not surprisingly, many concepts in deep learning can be connected to similar concepts in computational physics, and one can utilize this connection to better understand these algorithms. Second, several novel deep learning algorithms can be used to solve challenging problems in computational physics. Thus, they offer someone who is interested in modeling a physical phenomena with a complementary set of tools.

动态系统参见在物理，生物学，化学等自然科学中广泛使用，以及电路分析，计算流体动力学和控制等工程学科。对于简单的系统，可以通过应用基本物理法来导出管理动态的微分方程。然而，对于更复杂的系统，这种方法变得非常困难。数据驱动建模是一种替代范式，可以使用真实系统的观察来了解系统的动态的近似值。近年来，对数据驱动的建模技术的兴趣增加，特别是神经网络已被证明提供了解决广泛任务的有效框架。本文提供了使用神经网络构建动态系统模型的不同方式的调查。除了基础概述外，我们还审查了相关的文献，概述了这些建模范式必须克服的数值模拟中最重要的挑战。根据审查的文献和确定的挑战，我们提供了关于有前途的研究领域的讨论。

Physics-Informed Neural Networks (PINN) are algorithms from deep learning leveraging physical laws by including partial differential equations together with a respective set of boundary and initial conditions as penalty terms into their loss function. In this work, we observe the significant role of correctly weighting the combination of multiple competitive loss functions for training PINNs effectively. To this end, we implement and evaluate different methods aiming at balancing the contributions of multiple terms of the PINNs loss function and their gradients. After reviewing of three existing loss scaling approaches (Learning Rate Annealing, GradNorm and SoftAdapt), we propose a novel self-adaptive loss balancing scheme for PINNs named \emph{ReLoBRaLo} (Relative Loss Balancing with Random Lookback). We extensively evaluate the performance of the aforementioned balancing schemes by solving both forward as well as inverse problems on three benchmark PDEs for PINNs: Burgers' equation, Kirchhoff's plate bending equation and Helmholtz's equation. The results show that ReLoBRaLo is able to consistently outperform the baseline of existing scaling methods in terms of accuracy, while also inducing significantly less computational overhead.

FIG. 1. Schematic diagram of a Variational Quantum Algorithm (VQA). The inputs to a VQA are: a cost function C(θ), with θ a set of parameters that encodes the solution to the problem, an ansatz whose parameters are trained to minimize the cost, and (possibly) a set of training data {ρ k } used during the optimization. Here, the cost can often be expressed in the form in Eq. ( 3), for some set of functions {f k }. Also, the ansatz is shown as a parameterized quantum circuit (on the left), which is analogous to a neural network (also shown schematically on the right). At each iteration of the loop one uses a quantum computer to efficiently estimate the cost (or its gradients). This information is fed into a classical computer that leverages the power of optimizers to navigate the cost landscape C(θ) and solve the optimization problem in Eq. ( 1). Once a termination condition is met, the VQA outputs an estimate of the solution to the problem. The form of the output depends on the precise task at hand. The red box indicates some of the most common types of outputs.

监督的机器学习方法需要在训练阶段最小化损失功能。顺序数据在许多研究领域中无处不在，并且通常通过为表格数据设计的基于欧几里得距离的损失函数处理。对于平滑的振荡数据，这些常规方法缺乏对同时惩罚幅度，频率和相位预测误差的能力，并且倾向于偏向振幅误差。我们将表面相似性参数（SSP）作为一种新型损耗函数引入，对于平滑振荡序列的训练机器学习模型特别有用。我们对混沌时空动力学系统进行的广泛实验表明，SSP有益于塑造梯度，从而加速训练过程，减少最终预测误差，增加重量初始化的鲁棒性以及与使用经典损失功能相比，实施更强的正则化效果。结果表明，新型损失度量的潜力，特别是对于高度复杂和混乱的数据，例如由非线性二维Kuramoto-Sivashinsky方程以及流体中分散表面重力波的线性传播所引起的数据。

Non-equilibrium chemistry is a key process in the study of the InterStellar Medium (ISM), in particular the formation of molecular clouds and thus stars. However, computationally it is among the most difficult tasks to include in astrophysical simulations, because of the typically high (>40) number of reactions, the short evolutionary timescales (about $10^4$ times less than the ISM dynamical time) and the characteristic non-linearity and stiffness of the associated Ordinary Differential Equations system (ODEs). In this proof of concept work, we show that Physics Informed Neural Networks (PINN) are a viable alternative to traditional ODE time integrators for stiff thermo-chemical systems, i.e. up to molecular hydrogen formation (9 species and 46 reactions). Testing different chemical networks in a wide range of densities ($-2< \log n/{\rm cm}^{-3}< 3$) and temperatures ($1 < \log T/{\rm K}< 5$), we find that a basic architecture can give a comfortable convergence only for simplified chemical systems: to properly capture the sudden chemical and thermal variations a Deep Galerkin Method is needed. Once trained ($\sim 10^3$ GPUhr), the PINN well reproduces the strong non-linear nature of the solutions (errors $\lesssim 10\%$) and can give speed-ups up to a factor of $\sim 200$ with respect to traditional ODE solvers. Further, the latter have completion times that vary by about $\sim 30\%$ for different initial $n$ and $T$, while the PINN method gives negligible variations. Both the speed-up and the potential improvement in load balancing imply that PINN-powered simulations are a very palatable way to solve complex chemical calculation in astrophysical and cosmological problems.

在过去的十年中，在许多工程领域，包括自动驾驶汽车，医疗诊断和搜索引擎，甚至在艺术创作中，神经网络（NNS）已被证明是极有效的工具。确实，NN通常果断地超过传统算法。直到最近才引起重大兴趣的一个领域是使用NNS设计数值求解器，尤其是用于离散的偏微分方程。最近的几篇论文考虑使用NNS来开发多机方法，这些方法是解决离散的偏微分方程和其他稀疏矩阵问题的领先计算工具。我们扩展了这些新想法，重点关注所谓的放松操作员（也称为Smoothers），这是Multigrid算法的重要组成部分，在这种情况下尚未受到很多关注。我们探索了一种使用NNS学习带有随机系数的扩散算子的放松参数的方法，用于雅各比类型的Smoothers和4Color Gaussseidel Smoothers。后者的产量异常高效且易于使连续的放松（SOR）SmoOthors平行。此外，这项工作表明，使用两个网格方法在相对较小的网格上学习放松参数，而Gelfand的公式可以轻松实现。这些方法有效地产生了几乎最佳的参数，从而显着提高了大网格上的Multigrid算法的收敛速率。

我们在强烈混合（混乱）方面基于能源持续的哈密顿动力学进行了优化的新框架，并在分析和数值上建立其关键特性。该原型是对出生式动力学的离散化，取决于目标函数，其平方相对速度限制。这类无摩擦，节能优化器毫不动摇地进行，直到自然放慢速度在最小的损失附近，这主要是系统的相位空间体积。我们从对动力台球等混乱系统的研究构建，我们制定了一种特定的算法，在机器学习和解决PDE解决任务（包括概括）方面具有良好的性能。它不能以高的局部最低限度停止，这是非凸损失功能的优势，并且比浅谷中的GD+动量更快。

科学和工程学中的一个基本问题是设计最佳的控制政策，这些政策将给定的系统转向预期的结果。这项工作提出了同时求解给定系统状态和最佳控制信号的控制物理信息的神经网络（控制PINNS），在符合基础物理定律的一个阶段框架中。先前的方法使用两个阶段的框架，该框架首先建模然后按顺序控制系统。相比之下，控制PINN将所需的最佳条件纳入其体系结构和损耗函数中。通过解决以下开环的最佳控制问题来证明控制PINN的成功：（i）一个分析问题，（ii）一维热方程，以及（iii）二维捕食者捕食者问题。

在科学和工程应用中，通常需要反复解决类似的计算问题。在这种情况下，我们可以利用先前解决的问题实例中的数据来提高查找后续解决方案的效率。这提供了一个独特的机会，可以将机器学习（尤其是元学习）和科学计算相结合。迄今为止，文献中已经提出了各种此类域特异性方法，但是设计这些方法的通用方法仍然不足。在本文中，我们通过制定一个通用框架来描述这些问题，并提出一种基于梯度的算法来以统一的方式解决这些问题。作为这种方法的说明，我们研究了迭代求解器的适应性参数的自适应生成，以加速微分方程的溶液。我们通过理论分析和数值实验来证明我们方法的性能和多功能性，包括应用于不可压缩流量模拟的应用以及参数估计的逆问题。

数据驱动的湍流建模正在经历数据科学算法和硬件开发后的兴趣激增。我们讨论了一种使用可区分物理范式的方法，该方法将已知的物理学与机器学习结合起来，以开发汉堡湍流的闭合模型。我们将1D汉堡系统视为一种原型测试问题，用于建模以对流为主的湍流问题中未解决的术语。我们训练一系列模型，这些模型在后验损失函数上结合了不同程度的物理假设，以测试模型在一系列系统参数（包括粘度，时间和网格分辨率）上的疗效。我们发现，以部分微分方程形式的归纳偏差的约束模型包含已知物理或现有闭合方法会产生高度数据效率，准确和可推广的模型，并且表现优于最先进的基准。以物理信息形式添加结构还为模型带来了一定程度的解释性，可能为封闭建模的未来提供了垫脚石。

深度学习在广泛的AI应用方面取得了有希望的结果。较大的数据集和模型一致地产生更好的性能。但是，我们一般花费更长的培训时间，以更多的计算和沟通。在本调查中，我们的目标是在模型精度和模型效率方面提供关于大规模深度学习优化的清晰草图。我们调查最常用于优化的算法，详细阐述了大批量培训中出现的泛化差距的可辩论主题，并审查了解决通信开销并减少内存足迹的SOTA策略。

标准的神经网络可以近似一般的非线性操作员，要么通过数学运算符的组合（例如，在对流 - 扩散反应部分微分方程中）的组合，要么仅仅是黑匣子，例如黑匣子，例如一个系统系统。第一个神经操作员是基于严格的近似理论于2019年提出的深层操作员网络（DeepOnet）。从那时起，已经发布了其他一些较少的一般操作员，例如，基于图神经网络或傅立叶变换。对于黑匣子系统，对神经操作员的培训仅是数据驱动的，但是如果知道管理方程式可以在培训期间将其纳入损失功能，以开发物理知识的神经操作员。神经操作员可以用作设计问题，不确定性量化，自主系统以及几乎任何需要实时推断的应用程序中的代替代物。此外，通过将它们与相对轻的训练耦合，可以将独立的预训练deponets用作复杂多物理系统的组成部分。在这里，我们介绍了Deponet，傅立叶神经操作员和图神经操作员的评论，以及适当的扩展功能扩展，并突出显示它们在计算机械师中的各种应用中的实用性，包括多孔媒体，流体力学和固体机制， 。

这是一门专门针对STEM学生开发的介绍性机器学习课程。我们的目标是为有兴趣的读者提供基础知识，以在自己的项目中使用机器学习，并将自己熟悉术语作为进一步阅读相关文献的基础。在这些讲义中，我们讨论受监督，无监督和强化学习。注释从没有神经网络的机器学习方法的说明开始，例如原理分析，T-SNE，聚类以及线性回归和线性分类器。我们继续介绍基本和先进的神经网络结构，例如密集的进料和常规神经网络，经常性的神经网络，受限的玻尔兹曼机器，（变性）自动编码器，生成的对抗性网络。讨论了潜在空间表示的解释性问题，并使用梦和对抗性攻击的例子。最后一部分致力于加强学习，我们在其中介绍了价值功能和政策学习的基本概念。

This paper introduces the use of evolutionary algorithms for solving differential equations. The solution is obtained by optimizing a deep neural network whose loss function is defined by the residual terms from the differential equations. Recent studies have used stochastic gradient descent (SGD) variants to train these physics-informed neural networks (PINNs), but these methods can struggle to find accurate solutions due to optimization challenges. When solving differential equations, it is important to find the globally optimum parameters of the network, rather than just finding a solution that works well during training. SGD only searches along a single gradient direction, so it may not be the best approach for training PINNs with their accompanying complex optimization landscapes. In contrast, evolutionary algorithms perform a parallel exploration of different solutions in order to avoid getting stuck in local optima and can potentially find more accurate solutions. However, evolutionary algorithms can be slow, which can make them difficult to use in practice. To address this, we provide a set of five benchmark problems with associated performance metrics and baseline results to support the development of evolutionary algorithms for enhanced PINN training. As a baseline, we evaluate the performance and speed of using the widely adopted Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES) for solving PINNs. We provide the loss and training time for CMA-ES run on TensorFlow, and CMA-ES and SGD run on JAX (with GPU acceleration) for the five benchmark problems. Our results show that JAX-accelerated evolutionary algorithms, particularly CMA-ES, can be a useful approach for solving differential equations. We hope that our work will support the exploration and development of alternative optimization algorithms for the complex task of optimizing PINNs.

Despite great progress in simulating multiphysics problems using the numerical discretization of partial differential equations (PDEs), one still cannot seamlessly incorporate noisy data into existing algorithms, mesh generation remains complex, and high-dimensional problems governed by parameterized PDEs cannot be tackled. Moreover, solving inverse problems with hidden physics is often prohibitively expensive and requires different formulations and elaborate computer codes. Machine learning has emerged as a promising alternative, but training deep neural networks requires big data, not always available for scientific problems. Instead, such networks can be trained from additional information obtained by enforcing the physical laws (for example, at random points in the continuous space-time domain). Such physics-informed learning integrates (noisy) data and mathematical models, and implements them through neural networks or other kernel-based regression networks. Moreover, it may be possible to design specialized network architectures that automatically satisfy some of the physical invariants for better accuracy, faster training and improved generalization. Here, we review some of the prevailing trends in embedding physics into machine learning, present some of the current capabilities and limitations and discuss diverse applications of physics-informed learning both for forward and inverse problems, including discovering hidden physics and tackling high-dimensional problems.