Physics-Informed Neural Networks (PINN) are algorithms from deep learning leveraging physical laws by including partial differential equations together with a respective set of boundary and initial conditions as penalty terms into their loss function. In this work, we observe the significant role of correctly weighting the combination of multiple competitive loss functions for training PINNs effectively. To this end, we implement and evaluate different methods aiming at balancing the contributions of multiple terms of the PINNs loss function and their gradients. After reviewing of three existing loss scaling approaches (Learning Rate Annealing, GradNorm and SoftAdapt), we propose a novel self-adaptive loss balancing scheme for PINNs named \emph{ReLoBRaLo} (Relative Loss Balancing with Random Lookback). We extensively evaluate the performance of the aforementioned balancing schemes by solving both forward as well as inverse problems on three benchmark PDEs for PINNs: Burgers' equation, Kirchhoff's plate bending equation and Helmholtz's equation. The results show that ReLoBRaLo is able to consistently outperform the baseline of existing scaling methods in terms of accuracy, while also inducing significantly less computational overhead.

物理信息的神经网络（PINN）是神经网络（NNS），它们作为神经网络本身的组成部分编码模型方程，例如部分微分方程（PDE）。如今，PINN是用于求解PDE，分数方程，积分分化方程和随机PDE的。这种新颖的方法已成为一个多任务学习框架，在该框架中，NN必须在减少PDE残差的同时拟合观察到的数据。本文对PINNS的文献进行了全面的综述：虽然该研究的主要目标是表征这些网络及其相关的优势和缺点。该综述还试图将出版物纳入更广泛的基于搭配的物理知识的神经网络，这些神经网络构成了香草·皮恩（Vanilla Pinn）以及许多其他变体，例如物理受限的神经网络（PCNN），各种HP-VPINN，变量HP-VPINN，VPINN，VPINN，变体。和保守的Pinn（CPINN）。该研究表明，大多数研究都集中在通过不同的激活功能，梯度优化技术，神经网络结构和损耗功能结构来定制PINN。尽管使用PINN的应用范围广泛，但通过证明其在某些情况下比有限元方法（FEM）等经典数值技术更可行的能力，但仍有可能的进步，最著名的是尚未解决的理论问题。

Recent years have witnessed a growth in mathematics for deep learning--which seeks a deeper understanding of the concepts of deep learning with mathematics, and explores how to make it more robust--and deep learning for mathematics, where deep learning algorithms are used to solve problems in mathematics. The latter has popularised the field of scientific machine learning where deep learning is applied to problems in scientific computing. Specifically, more and more neural network architectures have been developed to solve specific classes of partial differential equations (PDEs). Such methods exploit properties that are inherent to PDEs and thus solve the PDEs better than classical feed-forward neural networks, recurrent neural networks, and convolutional neural networks. This has had a great impact in the area of mathematical modeling where parametric PDEs are widely used to model most natural and physical processes arising in science and engineering, In this work, we review such methods and extend them for parametric studies as well as for solving the related inverse problems. We equally proceed to show their relevance in some industrial applications.

Deep learning has achieved remarkable success in diverse applications; however, its use in solving partial differential equations (PDEs) has emerged only recently. Here, we present an overview of physics-informed neural networks (PINNs), which embed a PDE into the loss of the neural network using automatic differentiation. The PINN algorithm is simple, and it can be applied to different types of PDEs, including integro-differential equations, fractional PDEs, and stochastic PDEs. Moreover, from the implementation point of view, PINNs solve inverse problems as easily as forward problems. We propose a new residual-based adaptive refinement (RAR) method to improve the training efficiency of PINNs. For pedagogical reasons, we compare the PINN algorithm to a standard finite element method. We also present a Python library for PINNs, DeepXDE, which is designed to serve both as an education tool to be used in the classroom as well as a research tool for solving problems in computational science and engineering. Specifically, DeepXDE can solve forward problems given initial and boundary conditions, as well as inverse problems given some extra measurements. DeepXDE supports complex-geometry domains based on the technique of constructive solid geometry, and enables the user code to be compact, resembling closely the mathematical formulation. We introduce the usage of DeepXDE and its customizability, and we also demonstrate the capability of PINNs and the user-friendliness of DeepXDE for five different examples. More broadly, DeepXDE contributes to the more rapid development of the emerging Scientific Machine Learning field.

科学和工程学中的一个基本问题是设计最佳的控制政策，这些政策将给定的系统转向预期的结果。这项工作提出了同时求解给定系统状态和最佳控制信号的控制物理信息的神经网络（控制PINNS），在符合基础物理定律的一个阶段框架中。先前的方法使用两个阶段的框架，该框架首先建模然后按顺序控制系统。相比之下，控制PINN将所需的最佳条件纳入其体系结构和损耗函数中。通过解决以下开环的最佳控制问题来证明控制PINN的成功：（i）一个分析问题，（ii）一维热方程，以及（iii）二维捕食者捕食者问题。

微分方程用于多种学科，描述了物理世界的复杂行为。这些方程式的分析解决方案通常很难求解，从而限制了我们目前求解复杂微分方程的能力，并需要将复杂的数值方法近似于解决方案。训练有素的神经网络充当通用函数近似器，能够以新颖的方式求解微分方程。在这项工作中，探索了神经网络算法在数值求解微分方程方面的方法和应用，重点是不同的损失函数和生物应用。传统损失函数和训练参数的变化显示出使神经网络辅助解决方案更有效的希望，从而可以调查更复杂的方程式管理生物学原理。

物理信息神经网络（PINN）能够找到给定边界值问题的解决方案。我们使用有限元方法（FEM）的几个想法来增强工程问题中现有的PINN的性能。当前工作的主要贡献是促进使用主要变量的空间梯度作为分离神经网络的输出。后来，具有较高衍生物的强形式应用于主要变量的空间梯度作为物理约束。此外，该问题的所谓能量形式被应用于主要变量，作为训练的附加约束。所提出的方法仅需要一阶导数来构建物理损失函数。我们讨论了为什么通过不同模型之间的各种比较，这一点是有益的。基于配方混合的PINN和FE方法具有一些相似之处。前者利用神经网络的复杂非线性插值将PDE及其能量形式最小化及其能量形式，而后者则在元素节点借助Shape函数在元素节点上使用相同。我们专注于异质固体，以显示深学习在不同边界条件下在复杂环境中预测解决方案的能力。针对FEM的解决方案对两个原型问题的解决方案进行了检查：弹性和泊松方程（稳态扩散问题）。我们得出的结论是，通过正确设计PINN中的网络体系结构，深度学习模型有可能在没有其他来源的任何可用初始数据中解决异质域中的未知数。最后，关于Pinn和FEM的组合进行了讨论，以在未来的开发中快速准确地设计复合材料。

随着计算能力的增加和机器学习的进步，基于数据驱动的学习方法在解决PDE方面引起了极大的关注。物理知识的神经网络（PINN）最近出现并成功地在各种前进和逆PDES问题中取得了成功，其优异的特性，例如灵活性，无网格解决方案和无监督的培训。但是，它们的收敛速度较慢和相对不准确的解决方案通常会限制其在许多科学和工程领域中的更广泛适用性。本文提出了一种新型的数据驱动的PDES求解器，物理知识的细胞表示（Pixel），优雅地结合了经典数值方法和基于学习的方法。我们采用来自数值方法的网格结构，以提高准确性和收敛速度并克服PINN中呈现的光谱偏差。此外，所提出的方法在PINN中具有相同的好处，例如，使用相同的优化框架来解决前进和逆PDE问题，并很容易通过现代自动分化技术强制执行PDE约束。我们为原始Pinn所努力的各种具有挑战性的PDE提供了实验结果，并表明像素达到了快速收敛速度和高精度。

The identification of material parameters occurring in constitutive models has a wide range of applications in practice. One of these applications is the monitoring and assessment of the actual condition of infrastructure buildings, as the material parameters directly reflect the resistance of the structures to external impacts. Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) have recently emerged as a suitable method for solving inverse problems. The advantages of this method are a straightforward inclusion of observation data. Unlike grid-based methods, such as the finite element method updating (FEMU) approach, no computational grid and no interpolation of the data is required. In the current work, we aim to further develop PINNs towards the calibration of the linear-elastic constitutive model from full-field displacement and global force data in a realistic regime. We show that normalization and conditioning of the optimization problem play a crucial role in this process. Therefore, among others, we identify the material parameters for initial estimates and balance the individual terms in the loss function. In order to reduce the dependence of the identified material parameters on local errors in the displacement approximation, we base the identification not on the stress boundary conditions but instead on the global balance of internal and external work. In addition, we found that we get a better posed inverse problem if we reformulate it in terms of bulk and shear modulus instead of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. We demonstrate that the enhanced PINNs are capable of identifying material parameters from both experimental one-dimensional data and synthetic full-field displacement data in a realistic regime. Since displacement data measured by, e.g., a digital image correlation (DIC) system is noisy, we additionally investigate the robustness of the method to different levels of noise.

在本文中，我们演示并调查了一些挑战，这些挑战阻碍了使用物理知识的神经网络解决复杂问题的方式。特别是，我们可视化受过训练的模型的损失景观，并在存在物理学的情况下对反向传播梯度进行灵敏度分析。我们的发现表明，现有的方法产生了难以导航的高度非凸损失景观。此外，高阶PDE污染了可能阻碍或防止收敛的反向传播梯度。然后，我们提出了一种新的方法，该方法绕过了高阶PDE操作员的计算并减轻反向传播梯度的污染。为此，我们降低了解决方案搜索空间的维度，并通过非平滑解决方案促进学习问题。我们的配方还提供了一种反馈机制，可帮助我们的模型适应地专注于难以学习的领域的复杂区域。然后，我们通过调整Lagrange乘数方法来提出一个无约束的二重问题。我们运用我们的方法来解决由线性和非线性PDE控制的几个具有挑战性的基准问题。

物理知识的神经网络（PINNS）由于能力将物理定律纳入模型，在工程的各个领域都引起了很多关注。但是，对机械和热场之间涉及耦合的工业应用中PINN的评估仍然是一个活跃的研究主题。在这项工作中，我们提出了PINNS在非牛顿流体热机械问题上的应用，该问题通常在橡胶日历过程中考虑。我们证明了PINN在处理逆问题和不良问题时的有效性，这些问题是不切实际的，可以通过经典的数值离散方法解决。我们研究了传感器放置的影响以及无监督点对PINNS性能的分布，即从某些部分数据中推断出隐藏的物理领域的问题。我们还研究了PINN从传感器捕获的测量值中识别未知物理参数的能力。在整个工作中，还考虑了嘈杂测量的效果。本文的结果表明，在识别问题中，PINN可以仅使用传感器上的测量结果成功估算未知参数。在未完全定义边界条件的不足问题中，即使传感器的放置和无监督点的分布对PINNS性能产生了很大的影响，我们表明该算法能够从局部测量中推断出隐藏的物理。

Non-equilibrium chemistry is a key process in the study of the InterStellar Medium (ISM), in particular the formation of molecular clouds and thus stars. However, computationally it is among the most difficult tasks to include in astrophysical simulations, because of the typically high (>40) number of reactions, the short evolutionary timescales (about $10^4$ times less than the ISM dynamical time) and the characteristic non-linearity and stiffness of the associated Ordinary Differential Equations system (ODEs). In this proof of concept work, we show that Physics Informed Neural Networks (PINN) are a viable alternative to traditional ODE time integrators for stiff thermo-chemical systems, i.e. up to molecular hydrogen formation (9 species and 46 reactions). Testing different chemical networks in a wide range of densities ($-2< \log n/{\rm cm}^{-3}< 3$) and temperatures ($1 < \log T/{\rm K}< 5$), we find that a basic architecture can give a comfortable convergence only for simplified chemical systems: to properly capture the sudden chemical and thermal variations a Deep Galerkin Method is needed. Once trained ($\sim 10^3$ GPUhr), the PINN well reproduces the strong non-linear nature of the solutions (errors $\lesssim 10\%$) and can give speed-ups up to a factor of $\sim 200$ with respect to traditional ODE solvers. Further, the latter have completion times that vary by about $\sim 30\%$ for different initial $n$ and $T$, while the PINN method gives negligible variations. Both the speed-up and the potential improvement in load balancing imply that PINN-powered simulations are a very palatable way to solve complex chemical calculation in astrophysical and cosmological problems.

在本文中，我们开发了一种物理知识的神经网络（PINN）模型，用于具有急剧干扰初始条件的抛物线问题。作为抛物线问题的一个示例，我们考虑具有点（高斯）源初始条件的对流 - 分散方程（ADE）。在$ d $维的ADE中，在初始条件衰减中的扰动随时间$ t $ as $ t^{ - d/2} $，这可能会在Pinn解决方案中造成较大的近似错误。 ADE溶液中的局部大梯度使该方程的残余效率低下的（PINN）拉丁高立方体采样（常见）。最后，抛物线方程的PINN解对损耗函数中的权重选择敏感。我们提出了一种归一化的ADE形式，其中溶液的初始扰动不会降低幅度，并证明该归一化显着降低了PINN近似误差。我们提出了与通过其他方法选择的权重相比，损耗函数中的权重标准更准确。最后，我们提出了一种自适应采样方案，该方案可显着减少相同数量的采样（残差）点的PINN溶液误差。我们证明了提出的PINN模型的前进，反向和向后ADE的准确性。

这本数字本书包含在物理模拟的背景下与深度学习相关的一切实际和全面的一切。尽可能多，所有主题都带有Jupyter笔记本的形式的动手代码示例，以便快速入门。除了标准的受监督学习的数据中，我们将看看物理丢失约束，更紧密耦合的学习算法，具有可微分的模拟，以及加强学习和不确定性建模。我们生活在令人兴奋的时期：这些方法具有从根本上改变计算机模拟可以实现的巨大潜力。

我们制定了一类由物理驱动的深层变量模型（PDDLVM），以学习参数偏微分方程（PDES）的参数到解决方案（正向）和解决方案到参数（逆）图。我们的公式利用有限元方法（FEM），深神经网络和概率建模来组装一个深层概率框架，在该框架中，向前和逆图通过连贯的不确定性量化近似。我们的概率模型明确合并了基于参数PDE的密度和可训练的解决方案到参数网络，而引入的摊销变异家庭假定参数到解决方案网络，所有这些网络均经过联合培训。此外，所提出的方法不需要任何昂贵的PDE解决方案，并且仅在训练时间内对物理信息进行了信息，该方法允许PDE的实时仿真和培训后的逆问题解决方案的产生，绕开了对FEM操作的需求，以相当的准确性，以便于FEM解决方案。提出的框架进一步允许无缝集成观察到的数据，以解决反问题和构建生成模型。我们证明了方法对非线性泊松问题，具有复杂3D几何形状的弹性壳以及整合通用物理信息信息的神经网络（PINN）体系结构的有效性。与传统的FEM求解器相比，训练后，我们最多达到了三个数量级的速度，同时输出连贯的不确定性估计值。

Although physics-informed neural networks(PINNs) have progressed a lot in many real applications recently, there remains problems to be further studied, such as achieving more accurate results, taking less training time, and quantifying the uncertainty of the predicted results. Recent advances in PINNs have indeed significantly improved the performance of PINNs in many aspects, but few have considered the effect of variance in the training process. In this work, we take into consideration the effect of variance and propose our VI-PINNs to give better predictions. We output two values in the final layer of the network to represent the predicted mean and variance respectively, and the latter is used to represent the uncertainty of the output. A modified negative log-likelihood loss and an auxiliary task are introduced for fast and accurate training. We perform several experiments on a wide range of different problems to highlight the advantages of our approach. The results convey that our method not only gives more accurate predictions but also converges faster.

Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) have lately received significant attention as a representative deep learning-based technique for solving partial differential equations (PDEs). Most fully connected network-based PINNs use automatic differentiation to construct loss functions that suffer from slow convergence and difficult boundary enforcement. In addition, although convolutional neural network (CNN)-based PINNs can significantly improve training efficiency, CNNs have difficulty in dealing with irregular geometries with unstructured meshes. Therefore, we propose a novel framework based on graph neural networks (GNNs) and radial basis function finite difference (RBF-FD). We introduce GNNs into physics-informed learning to better handle irregular domains with unstructured meshes. RBF-FD is used to construct a high-precision difference format of the differential equations to guide model training. Finally, we perform numerical experiments on Poisson and wave equations on irregular domains. We illustrate the generalizability, accuracy, and efficiency of the proposed algorithms on different PDE parameters, numbers of collection points, and several types of RBFs.

在本文中，我们介绍了一种基于距离场的新方法，以确保物理知识的深神经网络中的边界条件。众所周知，满足网状紫外线和颗粒方法中的Dirichlet边界条件的挑战是众所周知的。该问题在物理信息的开发中也是相关的，用于解决部分微分方程的解。我们在人工神经网络中介绍几何意识的试验功能，以改善偏微分方程的深度学习培训。为此，我们使用来自建设性的实体几何（R函数）和广义的等级坐标（平均值潜在字段）的概念来构建$ \ phi $，对域边界的近似距离函数。要恰好施加均匀的Dirichlet边界条件，试验函数乘以\ PHI $乘以PINN近似，并且通过Transfinite插值的泛化用于先验满足的不均匀Dirichlet（必要），Neumann（自然）和Robin边界复杂几何形状的条件。在这样做时，我们消除了与搭配方法中的边界条件满意相关的建模误差，并确保以ritz方法点点到运动可视性。我们在具有仿射和弯曲边界的域上的线性和非线性边值问题的数值解。 1D中的基准问题，用于线性弹性，平面扩散和光束弯曲;考虑了泊松方程的2D，考虑了双音态方程和非线性欧克隆方程。该方法延伸到更高的尺寸，并通过在4D超立方套上解决彼此与均匀的Dirichlet边界条件求泊松问题来展示其使用。该研究提供了用于网眼分析的途径，以在没有域离散化的情况下在确切的几何图形上进行。

物理信息的神经网络（PINN）已证明是解决部分微分方程（PDE）的前进和反问题的有效工具。 PINN将PDE嵌入神经网络的丢失中，并在一组散射的残留点上评估该PDE损失。这些点的分布对于PINN的性能非常重要。但是，在现有的针对PINN的研究中，仅使用了一些简单的残留点抽样方法。在这里，我们介绍了两类采样的全面研究：非自适应均匀抽样和适应性非均匀抽样。我们考虑了六个均匀的采样，包括（1）稳定的均匀网格，（2）均匀随机采样，（3）拉丁语超立方体采样，（4）Halton序列，（5）Hammersley序列和（6）Sobol序列。我们还考虑了用于均匀抽样的重采样策略。为了提高采样效率和PINN的准确性，我们提出了两种新的基于残余的自适应抽样方法：基于残留的自适应分布（RAD）和基于残留的自适应改进，并具有分布（RAR-D），它们会动态地改善基于训练过程中PDE残差的剩余点。因此，我们总共考虑了10种不同的采样方法，包括6种非自适应均匀抽样，重采样的均匀抽样，两种提议的自适应抽样和现有的自适应抽样。我们广泛测试了这些抽样方法在许多设置中的四个正向问题和两个反问题的性能。我们在本研究中介绍的数值结果总结了6000多个PINN的模拟。我们表明，RAD和RAR-D的提议的自适应采样方法显着提高了PINN的准确性，其残留点较少。在这项研究中获得的结果也可以用作选择抽样方法的实用指南。

Despite great progress in simulating multiphysics problems using the numerical discretization of partial differential equations (PDEs), one still cannot seamlessly incorporate noisy data into existing algorithms, mesh generation remains complex, and high-dimensional problems governed by parameterized PDEs cannot be tackled. Moreover, solving inverse problems with hidden physics is often prohibitively expensive and requires different formulations and elaborate computer codes. Machine learning has emerged as a promising alternative, but training deep neural networks requires big data, not always available for scientific problems. Instead, such networks can be trained from additional information obtained by enforcing the physical laws (for example, at random points in the continuous space-time domain). Such physics-informed learning integrates (noisy) data and mathematical models, and implements them through neural networks or other kernel-based regression networks. Moreover, it may be possible to design specialized network architectures that automatically satisfy some of the physical invariants for better accuracy, faster training and improved generalization. Here, we review some of the prevailing trends in embedding physics into machine learning, present some of the current capabilities and limitations and discuss diverse applications of physics-informed learning both for forward and inverse problems, including discovering hidden physics and tackling high-dimensional problems.