Non-equilibrium chemistry is a key process in the study of the InterStellar Medium (ISM), in particular the formation of molecular clouds and thus stars. However, computationally it is among the most difficult tasks to include in astrophysical simulations, because of the typically high (>40) number of reactions, the short evolutionary timescales (about $10^4$ times less than the ISM dynamical time) and the characteristic non-linearity and stiffness of the associated Ordinary Differential Equations system (ODEs). In this proof of concept work, we show that Physics Informed Neural Networks (PINN) are a viable alternative to traditional ODE time integrators for stiff thermo-chemical systems, i.e. up to molecular hydrogen formation (9 species and 46 reactions). Testing different chemical networks in a wide range of densities ($-2< \log n/{\rm cm}^{-3}< 3$) and temperatures ($1 < \log T/{\rm K}< 5$), we find that a basic architecture can give a comfortable convergence only for simplified chemical systems: to properly capture the sudden chemical and thermal variations a Deep Galerkin Method is needed. Once trained ($\sim 10^3$ GPUhr), the PINN well reproduces the strong non-linear nature of the solutions (errors $\lesssim 10\%$) and can give speed-ups up to a factor of $\sim 200$ with respect to traditional ODE solvers. Further, the latter have completion times that vary by about $\sim 30\%$ for different initial $n$ and $T$, while the PINN method gives negligible variations. Both the speed-up and the potential improvement in load balancing imply that PINN-powered simulations are a very palatable way to solve complex chemical calculation in astrophysical and cosmological problems.

物理信息的神经网络（PINN）是神经网络（NNS），它们作为神经网络本身的组成部分编码模型方程，例如部分微分方程（PDE）。如今，PINN是用于求解PDE，分数方程，积分分化方程和随机PDE的。这种新颖的方法已成为一个多任务学习框架，在该框架中，NN必须在减少PDE残差的同时拟合观察到的数据。本文对PINNS的文献进行了全面的综述：虽然该研究的主要目标是表征这些网络及其相关的优势和缺点。该综述还试图将出版物纳入更广泛的基于搭配的物理知识的神经网络，这些神经网络构成了香草·皮恩（Vanilla Pinn）以及许多其他变体，例如物理受限的神经网络（PCNN），各种HP-VPINN，变量HP-VPINN，VPINN，VPINN，变体。和保守的Pinn（CPINN）。该研究表明，大多数研究都集中在通过不同的激活功能，梯度优化技术，神经网络结构和损耗功能结构来定制PINN。尽管使用PINN的应用范围广泛，但通过证明其在某些情况下比有限元方法（FEM）等经典数值技术更可行的能力，但仍有可能的进步，最著名的是尚未解决的理论问题。

物理知识的神经网络（PINNS）最近由于解决前进和反向问题的能力而受到了很多关注。为了训练与PINN相关的深层神经网络，通常会使用不同损失项的加权总和构建总损耗函数，然后尝试将其最小化。这种方法通常会成为解决刚性方程式的问题，因为它不能考虑自适应增量。许多研究报告说，PINN的性能不佳及其在模拟僵硬的普通差分条件（ODE）条件下模拟僵硬的化学活动问题方面的挑战。研究表明，刚度是PINN在模拟刚性动力学系统中失败的主要原因。在这里，我们通过提出减少损失函数的弱形式来解决这个问题，这导致了新的PINN结构（进一步称为还原Pinn），该结构利用降低的集成方法来使Pinn能够求解僵硬的化学动力学。所提出的还原细菌可以应用于涉及僵硬动力学的各种反应扩散系统。为此，我们将初始价值问题（IVP）转换为它们的等效积分形式，并使用物理知识的神经网络求解所得的积分方程。在我们派生的基于积分的优化过程中，只有一个术语，而没有明确合并与普通微分方程（ODE）和初始条件（ICS）相关的损失项。为了说明减少细菌的功能，我们用它来模拟多个僵硬/轻度的二阶频率。我们表明，还原的Pinn可准确捕获刚性标量颂歌的溶液。我们还针对线性ODES的硬质系统验证了还原的Pinn。

Recent years have witnessed a growth in mathematics for deep learning--which seeks a deeper understanding of the concepts of deep learning with mathematics, and explores how to make it more robust--and deep learning for mathematics, where deep learning algorithms are used to solve problems in mathematics. The latter has popularised the field of scientific machine learning where deep learning is applied to problems in scientific computing. Specifically, more and more neural network architectures have been developed to solve specific classes of partial differential equations (PDEs). Such methods exploit properties that are inherent to PDEs and thus solve the PDEs better than classical feed-forward neural networks, recurrent neural networks, and convolutional neural networks. This has had a great impact in the area of mathematical modeling where parametric PDEs are widely used to model most natural and physical processes arising in science and engineering, In this work, we review such methods and extend them for parametric studies as well as for solving the related inverse problems. We equally proceed to show their relevance in some industrial applications.

化学动力学和反应工程包括解除反应机制的现象学框架，优化反应性能和化学过程的合理设计。这里，我们利用前馈人工神经网络作为基础函数来解决由描述微蓄电图（MKMS）的差分代数方程（DAE）约束的常微分方程（杂物）。我们提出了一种代数框架，用于反应网络，基本反应类型和化学物种的数学描述和分类。在该框架下，我们证明了在正则化的多目标优化设置中同时训练了神经网络和动力学模型参数，通过估计来自合成实验数据的动力学参数来导致逆问题的解决方案。我们分析了一组方案，以确定可以从瞬态动力学数据检索动力学参数的程度，并评估方法的鲁棒性相对于统计噪声。这种反向动力学杂散的方法可以帮助基于瞬态数据阐明反应机制。

物理信息神经网络（PINN）能够找到给定边界值问题的解决方案。我们使用有限元方法（FEM）的几个想法来增强工程问题中现有的PINN的性能。当前工作的主要贡献是促进使用主要变量的空间梯度作为分离神经网络的输出。后来，具有较高衍生物的强形式应用于主要变量的空间梯度作为物理约束。此外，该问题的所谓能量形式被应用于主要变量，作为训练的附加约束。所提出的方法仅需要一阶导数来构建物理损失函数。我们讨论了为什么通过不同模型之间的各种比较，这一点是有益的。基于配方混合的PINN和FE方法具有一些相似之处。前者利用神经网络的复杂非线性插值将PDE及其能量形式最小化及其能量形式，而后者则在元素节点借助Shape函数在元素节点上使用相同。我们专注于异质固体，以显示深学习在不同边界条件下在复杂环境中预测解决方案的能力。针对FEM的解决方案对两个原型问题的解决方案进行了检查：弹性和泊松方程（稳态扩散问题）。我们得出的结论是，通过正确设计PINN中的网络体系结构，深度学习模型有可能在没有其他来源的任何可用初始数据中解决异质域中的未知数。最后，关于Pinn和FEM的组合进行了讨论，以在未来的开发中快速准确地设计复合材料。

这本数字本书包含在物理模拟的背景下与深度学习相关的一切实际和全面的一切。尽可能多，所有主题都带有Jupyter笔记本的形式的动手代码示例，以便快速入门。除了标准的受监督学习的数据中，我们将看看物理丢失约束，更紧密耦合的学习算法，具有可微分的模拟，以及加强学习和不确定性建模。我们生活在令人兴奋的时期：这些方法具有从根本上改变计算机模拟可以实现的巨大潜力。

Despite great progress in simulating multiphysics problems using the numerical discretization of partial differential equations (PDEs), one still cannot seamlessly incorporate noisy data into existing algorithms, mesh generation remains complex, and high-dimensional problems governed by parameterized PDEs cannot be tackled. Moreover, solving inverse problems with hidden physics is often prohibitively expensive and requires different formulations and elaborate computer codes. Machine learning has emerged as a promising alternative, but training deep neural networks requires big data, not always available for scientific problems. Instead, such networks can be trained from additional information obtained by enforcing the physical laws (for example, at random points in the continuous space-time domain). Such physics-informed learning integrates (noisy) data and mathematical models, and implements them through neural networks or other kernel-based regression networks. Moreover, it may be possible to design specialized network architectures that automatically satisfy some of the physical invariants for better accuracy, faster training and improved generalization. Here, we review some of the prevailing trends in embedding physics into machine learning, present some of the current capabilities and limitations and discuss diverse applications of physics-informed learning both for forward and inverse problems, including discovering hidden physics and tackling high-dimensional problems.

Physics-Informed Neural Networks (PINN) are algorithms from deep learning leveraging physical laws by including partial differential equations together with a respective set of boundary and initial conditions as penalty terms into their loss function. In this work, we observe the significant role of correctly weighting the combination of multiple competitive loss functions for training PINNs effectively. To this end, we implement and evaluate different methods aiming at balancing the contributions of multiple terms of the PINNs loss function and their gradients. After reviewing of three existing loss scaling approaches (Learning Rate Annealing, GradNorm and SoftAdapt), we propose a novel self-adaptive loss balancing scheme for PINNs named \emph{ReLoBRaLo} (Relative Loss Balancing with Random Lookback). We extensively evaluate the performance of the aforementioned balancing schemes by solving both forward as well as inverse problems on three benchmark PDEs for PINNs: Burgers' equation, Kirchhoff's plate bending equation and Helmholtz's equation. The results show that ReLoBRaLo is able to consistently outperform the baseline of existing scaling methods in terms of accuracy, while also inducing significantly less computational overhead.

深度学习方法的应用加快了挑战性电流问题的分辨率，最近显示出令人鼓舞的结果。但是，电力系统动力学不是快照，稳态操作。必须考虑这些动力学，以确保这些模型提供的最佳解决方案遵守实用的动力约束，避免频率波动和网格不稳定性。不幸的是，由于其高计算成本，基于普通或部分微分方程的动态系统模型通常不适合在控制或状态估计中直接应用。为了应对这些挑战，本文介绍了一种机器学习方法，以近乎实时近似电力系统动态的行为。该拟议的框架基于梯度增强的物理知识的神经网络（GPINNS），并编码有关电源系统的基本物理定律。拟议的GPINN的关键特征是它的训练能力而无需生成昂贵的培训数据。该论文说明了在单机无限总线系统中提出的方法在预测转子角度和频率的前进和反向问题中的潜力，以及不确定的参数，例如惯性和阻尼，以展示其在一系列电力系统应用中的潜力。

科学和工程学中的一个基本问题是设计最佳的控制政策，这些政策将给定的系统转向预期的结果。这项工作提出了同时求解给定系统状态和最佳控制信号的控制物理信息的神经网络（控制PINNS），在符合基础物理定律的一个阶段框架中。先前的方法使用两个阶段的框架，该框架首先建模然后按顺序控制系统。相比之下，控制PINN将所需的最佳条件纳入其体系结构和损耗函数中。通过解决以下开环的最佳控制问题来证明控制PINN的成功：（i）一个分析问题，（ii）一维热方程，以及（iii）二维捕食者捕食者问题。

These notes were compiled as lecture notes for a course developed and taught at the University of the Southern California. They should be accessible to a typical engineering graduate student with a strong background in Applied Mathematics. The main objective of these notes is to introduce a student who is familiar with concepts in linear algebra and partial differential equations to select topics in deep learning. These lecture notes exploit the strong connections between deep learning algorithms and the more conventional techniques of computational physics to achieve two goals. First, they use concepts from computational physics to develop an understanding of deep learning algorithms. Not surprisingly, many concepts in deep learning can be connected to similar concepts in computational physics, and one can utilize this connection to better understand these algorithms. Second, several novel deep learning algorithms can be used to solve challenging problems in computational physics. Thus, they offer someone who is interested in modeling a physical phenomena with a complementary set of tools.

Deep learning has achieved remarkable success in diverse applications; however, its use in solving partial differential equations (PDEs) has emerged only recently. Here, we present an overview of physics-informed neural networks (PINNs), which embed a PDE into the loss of the neural network using automatic differentiation. The PINN algorithm is simple, and it can be applied to different types of PDEs, including integro-differential equations, fractional PDEs, and stochastic PDEs. Moreover, from the implementation point of view, PINNs solve inverse problems as easily as forward problems. We propose a new residual-based adaptive refinement (RAR) method to improve the training efficiency of PINNs. For pedagogical reasons, we compare the PINN algorithm to a standard finite element method. We also present a Python library for PINNs, DeepXDE, which is designed to serve both as an education tool to be used in the classroom as well as a research tool for solving problems in computational science and engineering. Specifically, DeepXDE can solve forward problems given initial and boundary conditions, as well as inverse problems given some extra measurements. DeepXDE supports complex-geometry domains based on the technique of constructive solid geometry, and enables the user code to be compact, resembling closely the mathematical formulation. We introduce the usage of DeepXDE and its customizability, and we also demonstrate the capability of PINNs and the user-friendliness of DeepXDE for five different examples. More broadly, DeepXDE contributes to the more rapid development of the emerging Scientific Machine Learning field.

Solute transport in porous media is relevant to a wide range of applications in hydrogeology, geothermal energy, underground CO2 storage, and a variety of chemical engineering systems. Due to the complexity of solute transport in heterogeneous porous media, traditional solvers require high resolution meshing and are therefore expensive computationally. This study explores the application of a mesh-free method based on deep learning to accelerate the simulation of solute transport. We employ Physics-informed Neural Networks (PiNN) to solve solute transport problems in homogeneous and heterogeneous porous media governed by the advection-dispersion equation. Unlike traditional neural networks that learn from large training datasets, PiNNs only leverage the strong form mathematical models to simultaneously solve for multiple dependent or independent field variables (e.g., pressure and solute concentration fields). In this study, we construct PiNN using a periodic activation function to better represent the complex physical signals (i.e., pressure) and their derivatives (i.e., velocity). Several case studies are designed with the intention of investigating the proposed PiNN's capability to handle different degrees of complexity. A manual hyperparameter tuning method is used to find the best PiNN architecture for each test case. Point-wise error and mean square error (MSE) measures are employed to assess the performance of PiNNs' predictions against the ground truth solutions obtained analytically or numerically using the finite element method. Our findings show that the predictions of PiNN are in good agreement with the ground truth solutions while reducing computational complexity and cost by, at least, three orders of magnitude.

最近在科学机器学习的工作已经开发出所谓的物理信息的神经网络（Pinn）模型。典型方法是将物理域知识纳入经验丢失功能的软限制，并使用现有的机器学习方法来培训模型。我们展示了，虽然现有的Pinn方法可以学习良好的模型，但它们可以轻松地未能学习相关的物理现象，甚至更复杂的问题。特别是，我们分析了众多不同的普遍物理兴趣的情况，包括使用对流，反应和扩散运营商学习微分方程。我们提供了证据表明Pinns中的软正规化，涉及基于PDE的差分运营商，可以引入许多微妙的问题，包括使问题更加不良。重要的是，我们表明，这些可能的失败模式不是由于NN架构中缺乏富有效力，但Pinn的设置使得损失景观很难优化。然后，我们描述了两个有希望的解决方案来解决这些故障模式。第一种方法是使用课程正则化，其中Pinn的丢失项从简单的PDE正则化开始，并且随着NN训练而变得逐渐变得更加复杂。第二种方法是将问题构成为序列到序列的学习任务，而不是学习一次性地预测整个时空。广泛的测试表明，与常规Pinn训练相比，我们可以通过这些方法实现最多1-2个数量级。

动态系统参见在物理，生物学，化学等自然科学中广泛使用，以及电路分析，计算流体动力学和控制等工程学科。对于简单的系统，可以通过应用基本物理法来导出管理动态的微分方程。然而，对于更复杂的系统，这种方法变得非常困难。数据驱动建模是一种替代范式，可以使用真实系统的观察来了解系统的动态的近似值。近年来，对数据驱动的建模技术的兴趣增加，特别是神经网络已被证明提供了解决广泛任务的有效框架。本文提供了使用神经网络构建动态系统模型的不同方式的调查。除了基础概述外，我们还审查了相关的文献，概述了这些建模范式必须克服的数值模拟中最重要的挑战。根据审查的文献和确定的挑战，我们提供了关于有前途的研究领域的讨论。

微分方程用于多种学科，描述了物理世界的复杂行为。这些方程式的分析解决方案通常很难求解，从而限制了我们目前求解复杂微分方程的能力，并需要将复杂的数值方法近似于解决方案。训练有素的神经网络充当通用函数近似器，能够以新颖的方式求解微分方程。在这项工作中，探索了神经网络算法在数值求解微分方程方面的方法和应用，重点是不同的损失函数和生物应用。传统损失函数和训练参数的变化显示出使神经网络辅助解决方案更有效的希望，从而可以调查更复杂的方程式管理生物学原理。

在过去的十年中，在许多工程领域，包括自动驾驶汽车，医疗诊断和搜索引擎，甚至在艺术创作中，神经网络（NNS）已被证明是极有效的工具。确实，NN通常果断地超过传统算法。直到最近才引起重大兴趣的一个领域是使用NNS设计数值求解器，尤其是用于离散的偏微分方程。最近的几篇论文考虑使用NNS来开发多机方法，这些方法是解决离散的偏微分方程和其他稀疏矩阵问题的领先计算工具。我们扩展了这些新想法，重点关注所谓的放松操作员（也称为Smoothers），这是Multigrid算法的重要组成部分，在这种情况下尚未受到很多关注。我们探索了一种使用NNS学习带有随机系数的扩散算子的放松参数的方法，用于雅各比类型的Smoothers和4Color Gaussseidel Smoothers。后者的产量异常高效且易于使连续的放松（SOR）SmoOthors平行。此外，这项工作表明，使用两个网格方法在相对较小的网格上学习放松参数，而Gelfand的公式可以轻松实现。这些方法有效地产生了几乎最佳的参数，从而显着提高了大网格上的Multigrid算法的收敛速率。

深度学习的繁荣激发了渴望整合这两个领域的计算流体动力学的研究人员和实践者。PINN（物理信息神经网络）方法就是这样的尝试。尽管文献中的大多数报告都显示出应用PINN方法的积极结果，但我们对其进行了实验扼杀了这种乐观。这项工作介绍了我们使用PINN解决两个基本流量问题的不成功的故事：2D Taylor-Green Vortex at $ re = 100 $ = 100 $和2D缸流，$ re re = 200 $。 Pinn方法解决了2D Taylor-Green涡流问题，并以可接受的结果为基础，我们将这种流程作为精度和性能基准。 Pinn方法的准确性需要大约32个小时的训练，以使$ 16 \ times 16 $有限差异模拟的准确性不到20秒。另一方面，2D气缸流甚至没有导致物理溶液。 Pinn方法的表现像稳态的求解器，没有捕获涡流脱落现象。通过分享我们的经验，我们要强调的是，Pinn方法仍然是一种正在进行的工作。需要更多的工作来使Pinn对于现实世界中的问题可行。

在这项工作中，我们分析了不同程度的不同精度和分段多项式测试函数如何影响变异物理学知情神经网络（VPINN）的收敛速率，同时解决椭圆边界边界值问题，如何影响变异物理学知情神经网络（VPINN）的收敛速率。使用依靠INF-SUP条件的Petrov-Galerkin框架，我们在精确解决方案和合适的计算神经网络的合适的高阶分段插值之间得出了一个先验误差估计。数值实验证实了理论预测并突出了INF-SUP条件的重要性。我们的结果表明，以某种方式违反直觉，对于平滑解决方案，实现高衰减率的最佳策略在选择最低多项式程度的测试功能方面，同时使用适当高精度的正交公式。