Reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms have achieved notable success in recent years, but still struggle with fundamental issues in long-term credit assignment. It remains difficult to learn in situations where success is contingent upon multiple critical steps that are distant in time from each other and from a sparse reward; as is often the case in real life. Moreover, how RL algorithms assign credit in these difficult situations is typically not coded in a way that can rapidly generalize to new situations. Here, we present an approach using offline contrastive learning, which we call contrastive introspection (ConSpec), that can be added to any existing RL algorithm and addresses both issues. In ConSpec, a contrastive loss is used during offline replay to identify invariances among successful episodes. This takes advantage of the fact that it is easier to retrospectively identify the small set of steps that success is contingent upon than it is to prospectively predict reward at every step taken in the environment. ConSpec stores this knowledge in a collection of prototypes summarizing the intermediate states required for success. During training, arrival at any state that matches these prototypes generates an intrinsic reward that is added to any external rewards. As well, the reward shaping provided by ConSpec can be made to preserve the optimal policy of the underlying RL agent. The prototypes in ConSpec provide two key benefits for credit assignment: (1) They enable rapid identification of all the critical states. (2) They do so in a readily interpretable manner, enabling out of distribution generalization when sensory features are altered. In summary, ConSpec is a modular system that can be added to any existing RL algorithm to improve its long-term credit assignment.
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Reinforcement Learning has emerged as a strong alternative to solve optimization tasks efficiently. The use of these algorithms highly depends on the feedback signals provided by the environment in charge of informing about how good (or bad) the decisions made by the learned agent are. Unfortunately, in a broad range of problems the design of a good reward function is not trivial, so in such cases sparse reward signals are instead adopted. The lack of a dense reward function poses new challenges, mostly related to exploration. Imitation Learning has addressed those problems by leveraging demonstrations from experts. In the absence of an expert (and its subsequent demonstrations), an option is to prioritize well-suited exploration experiences collected by the agent in order to bootstrap its learning process with good exploration behaviors. However, this solution highly depends on the ability of the agent to discover such trajectories in the early stages of its learning process. To tackle this issue, we propose to combine imitation learning with intrinsic motivation, two of the most widely adopted techniques to address problems with sparse reward. In this work intrinsic motivation is used to encourage the agent to explore the environment based on its curiosity, whereas imitation learning allows repeating the most promising experiences to accelerate the learning process. This combination is shown to yield an improved performance and better generalization in procedurally-generated environments, outperforming previously reported self-imitation learning methods and achieving equal or better sample efficiency with respect to intrinsic motivation in isolation.
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Transformer, originally devised for natural language processing, has also attested significant success in computer vision. Thanks to its super expressive power, researchers are investigating ways to deploy transformers to reinforcement learning (RL) and the transformer-based models have manifested their potential in representative RL benchmarks. In this paper, we collect and dissect recent advances on transforming RL by transformer (transformer-based RL or TRL), in order to explore its development trajectory and future trend. We group existing developments in two categories: architecture enhancement and trajectory optimization, and examine the main applications of TRL in robotic manipulation, text-based games, navigation and autonomous driving. For architecture enhancement, these methods consider how to apply the powerful transformer structure to RL problems under the traditional RL framework, which model agents and environments much more precisely than deep RL methods, but they are still limited by the inherent defects of traditional RL algorithms, such as bootstrapping and "deadly triad". For trajectory optimization, these methods treat RL problems as sequence modeling and train a joint state-action model over entire trajectories under the behavior cloning framework, which are able to extract policies from static datasets and fully use the long-sequence modeling capability of the transformer. Given these advancements, extensions and challenges in TRL are reviewed and proposals about future direction are discussed. We hope that this survey can provide a detailed introduction to TRL and motivate future research in this rapidly developing field.
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尽管深度强化学习(RL)最近取得了许多成功,但其方法仍然效率低下,这使得在数据方面解决了昂贵的许多问题。我们的目标是通过利用未标记的数据中的丰富监督信号来进行学习状态表示,以解决这一问题。本文介绍了三种不同的表示算法,可以访问传统RL算法使用的数据源的不同子集使用:(i)GRICA受到独立组件分析(ICA)的启发,并训练深层神经网络以输出统计独立的独立特征。输入。 Grica通过最大程度地减少每个功能与其他功能之间的相互信息来做到这一点。此外,格里卡仅需要未分类的环境状态。 (ii)潜在表示预测(LARP)还需要更多的上下文:除了要求状态作为输入外,它还需要先前的状态和连接它们的动作。该方法通过预测当前状态和行动的环境的下一个状态来学习状态表示。预测器与图形搜索算法一起使用。 (iii)重新培训通过训练深层神经网络来学习国家表示,以学习奖励功能的平滑版本。该表示形式用于预处理输入到深度RL,而奖励预测指标用于奖励成型。此方法仅需要环境中的状态奖励对学习表示表示。我们发现,每种方法都有其优势和缺点,并从我们的实验中得出结论,包括无监督的代表性学习在RL解决问题的管道中可以加快学习的速度。
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Atari games have been a long-standing benchmark in the reinforcement learning (RL) community for the past decade. This benchmark was proposed to test general competency of RL algorithms. Previous work has achieved good average performance by doing outstandingly well on many games of the set, but very poorly in several of the most challenging games. We propose Agent57, the first deep RL agent that outperforms the standard human benchmark on all 57 Atari games. To achieve this result, we train a neural network which parameterizes a family of policies ranging from very exploratory to purely exploitative. We propose an adaptive mechanism to choose which policy to prioritize throughout the training process. Additionally, we utilize a novel parameterization of the architecture that allows for more consistent and stable learning.
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Adequately assigning credit to actions for future outcomes based on their contributions is a long-standing open challenge in Reinforcement Learning. The assumptions of the most commonly used credit assignment method are disadvantageous in tasks where the effects of decisions are not immediately evident. Furthermore, this method can only evaluate actions that have been selected by the agent, making it highly inefficient. Still, no alternative methods have been widely adopted in the field. Hindsight Credit Assignment is a promising, but still unexplored candidate, which aims to solve the problems of both long-term and counterfactual credit assignment. In this thesis, we empirically investigate Hindsight Credit Assignment to identify its main benefits, and key points to improve. Then, we apply it to factored state representations, and in particular to state representations based on the causal structure of the environment. In this setting, we propose a variant of Hindsight Credit Assignment that effectively exploits a given causal structure. We show that our modification greatly decreases the workload of Hindsight Credit Assignment, making it more efficient and enabling it to outperform the baseline credit assignment method on various tasks. This opens the way to other methods based on given or learned causal structures.
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通过回顾一封来自情节记忆的过去的经验,可以通过回忆过去的经验来实现钢筋学习的样本效率。我们提出了一种新的基于模型的轨迹的集体记忆,解决了集体控制的当前限制。我们的记忆估计轨迹值,指导代理人朝着良好的政策。基于内存构建,我们通过动态混合控制统一模型的基于动态和习惯学习来构建互补学习模型,进入单个架构。实验表明,我们的模型可以比各种环境中的其他强力加强学习代理更快,更好地学习,包括随机和非马尔可夫环境。
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强化学习代理经常忘记过去的细节,特别是在延误或令人厌倦的任务之后。具有常见内存架构的代理努力召回和集成在过去事件的多个时间步行中,甚至会调用后跟分散的任务任务的单个时间戳的详细信息。为了解决这些限制,我们提出了一个分层块注意内存(HCAM),这有助于代理商详细记住过去。 HCAM通过将过去除以块来存储记忆,并通过首先在块的粗粗摘要上执行高级注意,然后在仅在最相关的块中进行详细关注。因此,具有HCAM的代理可以“精神上的时间旅行” - 记住过去的事件,并在不参加所有干预事件。我们展示了HCAM的代理基本上优于具有其他内存架构的代理,其任务需要长期回忆,保留或推理存储器。这些包括回顾一个对象隐藏在3D环境中的位置,迅速学习在新的邻域中有效地导航,以及快速学习和保留新的对象名称。具有HCAM的代理可以将其推断到任务序列,而不是培训的任务序列,甚至可以从元学习环境中概括为零射击,以维持跨情节的知识。 HCAM提高了代理样本效率,泛化和一般性(通过解决先前所需的专业架构的任务)。我们的工作是迈向可以学习,交互和适应复杂和时间扩展环境的代理的一步。
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强化学习算法在解决稀疏和延迟奖励的复杂分层任务时需要许多样本。对于此类复杂的任务,最近提出的方向舵使用奖励再分配来利用与完成子任务相关的Q功能中的步骤。但是,由于当前的探索策略无法在合理的时间内发现它们,因此通常只有很少有具有高回报的情节作为示范。在这项工作中,我们介绍了Align-rudder,该王牌利用了一个配置文件模型来进行奖励重新分布,该模型是从多个示范序列比对获得的。因此,Align-Rudder有效地采用了奖励再分配,从而大大改善了很少的演示学习。 Align-rudder在复杂的人工任务上的竞争者优于竞争对手,延迟的奖励和几乎没有示威的竞争者。在Minecraft获得Diamond的任务上,Align Rudder能够挖掘钻石,尽管不经常。代码可在https://github.com/ml-jku/align-rudder上找到。 YouTube:https://youtu.be/ho-_8zul-uy
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We present CURL: Contrastive Unsupervised Representations for Reinforcement Learning. CURL extracts high-level features from raw pixels using contrastive learning and performs offpolicy control on top of the extracted features. CURL outperforms prior pixel-based methods, both model-based and model-free, on complex tasks in the DeepMind Control Suite and Atari Games showing 1.9x and 1.2x performance gains at the 100K environment and interaction steps benchmarks respectively. On the DeepMind Control Suite, CURL is the first image-based algorithm to nearly match the sample-efficiency of methods that use state-based features. Our code is open-sourced and available at https://www. github.com/MishaLaskin/curl.
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当相互作用数据稀缺时,深厚的增强学习(RL)算法遭受了严重的性能下降,这限制了其现实世界的应用。最近,视觉表示学习已被证明是有效的,并且有望提高RL样品效率。这些方法通常依靠对比度学习和数据扩展来训练状态预测的过渡模型,这与在RL中使用模型的方式不同 - 基于价值的计划。因此,学到的模型可能无法与环境保持良好状态并产生一致的价值预测,尤其是当国家过渡不是确定性的情况下。为了解决这个问题,我们提出了一种称为价值一致表示学习(VCR)的新颖方法,以学习与决策直接相关的表示形式。更具体地说,VCR训练一个模型,以预测基于当前的状态(也称为“想象的状态”)和一系列动作。 VCR没有将这个想象中的状态与环境返回的真实状态保持一致,而是在两个状态上应用$ q $ - 价值头,并获得了两个行动值分布。然后将距离计算并最小化以迫使想象的状态产生与真实状态相似的动作值预测。我们为离散和连续的动作空间开发了上述想法的两个实现。我们对Atari 100K和DeepMind Control Suite基准测试进行实验,以验证其提高样品效率的有效性。已经证明,我们的方法实现了无搜索RL算法的新最新性能。
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Deep reinforcement learning is poised to revolutionise the field of AI and represents a step towards building autonomous systems with a higher level understanding of the visual world. Currently, deep learning is enabling reinforcement learning to scale to problems that were previously intractable, such as learning to play video games directly from pixels. Deep reinforcement learning algorithms are also applied to robotics, allowing control policies for robots to be learned directly from camera inputs in the real world. In this survey, we begin with an introduction to the general field of reinforcement learning, then progress to the main streams of value-based and policybased methods. Our survey will cover central algorithms in deep reinforcement learning, including the deep Q-network, trust region policy optimisation, and asynchronous advantage actor-critic. In parallel, we highlight the unique advantages of deep neural networks, focusing on visual understanding via reinforcement learning. To conclude, we describe several current areas of research within the field.
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强化学习(RL)代理商广泛用于解决复杂的连续决策任务,但仍然表现出概括到培训期间未见的情景。在先前的在线方法证明,使用超出奖励功能的其他信号可以导致RL代理商中的更好的泛化能力,即使用自我监督学习(SSL),他们在离线RL设置中奋斗,即从静态数据集中学习。我们表明,由于观察之间的相似性差异差,可以在离线设置中阻碍用于RL的普遍的在线算法的性能。我们提出了一种称为广义相似性功能(GSF)的新的理论上动机框架,它使用对比学习来训练基于其预期未来行为的相似性的离线RL代理,以便使用\ EMPH {广义值来量化此相似性。职能}。我们表明GSF足以恢复现有的SSL目标,同时还可以在复杂的离线RL基准,离线Procgen上提高零拍泛化性能。
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本文考虑了多智能经纪人强化学习(MARL)任务,代理商在集会结束时获得共享全球奖励。这种奖励的延迟性质影响了代理商在中间时间步骤中评估其行动质量的能力。本文侧重于开发学习焦点奖励的时间重新分布的方法,以获得密集奖励信号。解决这些MARL问题需要解决两个挑战:识别(1)沿着集发作(沿时间)的长度相对重要性,以及(2)在任何单一时间步骤(代理商中)的相对重要性。在本文中,我们介绍了奖励中的奖励再分配,在整容多智能体加固学习(Arel)中奖励再分配,以解决这两个挑战。 Arel使用注意机制来表征沿着轨迹(时间关注)对状态转换的动作的影响,以及每个代理在每个时间步骤(代理人注意)的影响。 Arel预测的重新分配奖励是密集的,可以与任何给定的MARL算法集成。我们评估了粒子世界环境的具有挑战性的任务和星际争霸多功能挑战。 arel导致粒子世界的奖励较高,并改善星际争端的胜利率与三个最先进的奖励再分配方法相比。我们的代码可在https://github.com/baicenxiao/arel获得。
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深度强化学习(DRL)和深度多机构的强化学习(MARL)在包括游戏AI,自动驾驶汽车,机器人技术等各种领域取得了巨大的成功。但是,众所周知,DRL和Deep MARL代理的样本效率低下,即使对于相对简单的问题设置,通常也需要数百万个相互作用,从而阻止了在实地场景中的广泛应用和部署。背后的一个瓶颈挑战是众所周知的探索问题,即如何有效地探索环境和收集信息丰富的经验,从而使政策学习受益于最佳研究。在稀疏的奖励,吵闹的干扰,长距离和非平稳的共同学习者的复杂环境中,这个问题变得更加具有挑战性。在本文中,我们对单格和多代理RL的现有勘探方法进行了全面的调查。我们通过确定有效探索的几个关键挑战开始调查。除了上述两个主要分支外,我们还包括其他具有不同思想和技术的著名探索方法。除了算法分析外,我们还对一组常用基准的DRL进行了全面和统一的经验比较。根据我们的算法和实证研究,我们终于总结了DRL和Deep Marl中探索的公开问题,并指出了一些未来的方向。
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自成立以来,建立在广泛任务中表现出色的普通代理的任务一直是强化学习的重要目标。这个问题一直是对Alarge工作体系的研究的主题,并且经常通过观察Atari 57基准中包含的广泛范围环境的分数来衡量的性能。 Agent57是所有57场比赛中第一个超过人类基准的代理商,但这是以数据效率差的代价,需要实现近800亿帧的经验。以Agent57为起点,我们采用了各种各样的形式,以降低超过人类基线所需的经验200倍。在减少数据制度和Propose有效的解决方案时,我们遇到了一系列不稳定性和瓶颈,以构建更强大,更有效的代理。我们还使用诸如Muesli和Muzero之类的高性能方法证明了竞争性的性能。 TOOUR方法的四个关键组成部分是(1)近似信任区域方法,该方法可以从TheOnline网络中稳定引导,(2)损失和优先级的归一化方案,在学习具有广泛量表的一组值函数时,可以提高鲁棒性, (3)改进的体系结构采用了NFNET的技术技术来利用更深的网络而无需标准化层,并且(4)政策蒸馏方法可使瞬时贪婪的策略加班。
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近年来,变压器体系结构和变体在许多机器学习任务中取得了巨大的成功。这种成功与关注机制的处理能力和上下文相关权重的存在本质上相关。我们认为这些功能适合元强化学习算法的核心作用。实际上,元素代理需要从一系列轨迹来推断任务。此外,它需要一种快速适应策略来适应其政策,以适应新任务 - 可以使用自我注意机制来实现。在这项工作中,我们介绍了TRMRL(用于元强化学习的变压器),这是一种使用变压器体系结构模拟内存恢复机制的元代理。它将工作记忆的最新过去联系在一起,以通过变压器层递归地构建情节记忆。我们表明,自我发作计算共识表示,该表示将每一层的贝叶斯风险降至最低,并提供有意义的功能来计算最佳动作。我们在高维连续控制环境中进行了实验,以进行运动和灵活的操纵。结果表明,与这些环境中的基准相比,TRMRL提出了可比或上级渐近性能,样本效率和分布外的概括。
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由于它们所需的大量集中,最深度增强学习算法的状态是对渐近性能的大量集中的效率低。由哺乳动物海马的启发的episodic加强学习(ERL)算法通常使用扩展的内存系统从过去的事件开始学习,以克服这个样本效率问题。然而,这种内存增强通常用作仅仅是缓冲区,从中绘制了孤立的过去经验,以便以离线方式学习(例如,重播)。这里,我们证明包括从集扩展抽样顺序导出的所获取的内存内容中的偏差来提高弹性控制算法的样本和存储器效率。我们在觅食任务中测试了我们的顺序焦点控制(SEC)模型,以显示存储和使用集成剧集作为事件序列导致更快的学习,与较少的内存要求相反,与隔离的缓冲区相比只有事件。我们还研究了内存约束的影响,忘记了SEC算法的顺序和非顺序版本。此外,我们讨论了类似海马的快速记忆系统如何在哺乳动物大脑中引导慢速皮质和皮质学习习惯的习惯。
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机器学习算法中多个超参数的最佳设置是发出大多数可用数据的关键。为此目的,已经提出了几种方法,例如进化策略,随机搜索,贝叶斯优化和启发式拇指规则。在钢筋学习(RL)中,学习代理在与其环境交互时收集的数据的信息内容严重依赖于许多超参数的设置。因此,RL算法的用户必须依赖于基于搜索的优化方法,例如网格搜索或Nelder-Mead单简单算法,这对于大多数R1任务来说是非常效率的,显着减慢学习曲线和离开用户的速度有目的地偏见数据收集的负担。在这项工作中,为了使RL算法更加用户独立,提出了一种使用贝叶斯优化的自主超参数设置的新方法。来自过去剧集和不同的超参数值的数据通过执行行为克隆在元学习水平上使用,这有助于提高最大化获取功能的加强学习变体的有效性。此外,通过紧密地整合在加强学习代理设计中的贝叶斯优化,还减少了收敛到给定任务的最佳策略所需的状态转换的数量。与其他手动调整和基于优化的方法相比,计算实验显示了有希望的结果,这突出了改变算法超级参数来增加所生成数据的信息内容的好处。
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任务 - 无人探索的常见方法学习塔杜拉 - RASA - 代理商假设隔离环境,没有先验的知识或经验。然而,在现实世界中,代理商在许多环境中学习,并且随着他们探索新的环境,始终伴随着事先经验。探索是一场终身的过程。在本文中,我们提出了对任务无关探索的制定和评估的范式变迁。在此设置中,代理首先学会在许多环境中探索,没有任何外在目标的任务不可行的方式。后来,代理商有效地传输了学习探索政策,以便在解决任务时更好地探索新环境。在这方面,我们评估了几种基线勘探战略,并提出了一种简单但有效的学习任务无关探索政策方法。我们的主要思想是,有两种勘探组成部分:(1)基于代理人的信仰,促进探索探索环境的经验主义部分; (2)以环境为中心的组件,鼓励探索固有的有趣物体。我们表明我们的配方是有效的,并提供多种训练测试环境对的最一致的探索。我们还介绍了评估任务无关勘探策略的基准和指标。源代码在https://github.com/sparisi/cbet/处获得。
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