在本文中，我们利用了最近的物理信息神经网络（PINN）的进步，并开发了一种基于通用的Pinn的框架，以评估多状态系统（MSS）的可靠性。提议的方法包括两个主要步骤。在第一步中，我们将MS的可靠性评估作为使用Pinn框架的机器学习问题。构建具有两个单独损耗组的前馈神经网络以编码由MS中的常微分方程（ODES）管理的初始条件和状态转换。接下来，从多任务学习的角度来看，我们解决了Pinn中的背部传播梯度大小的高不平衡问题。特别是，我们将损失函数中的每个元素视为个别任务，采用名为Projecting冲突渐变（PCGRAD）的梯度手术方法，其中任务的渐变将投影到具有冲突梯度的任何其他任务的常规平面上。梯度投影操作显着降低了训练销时梯度干扰引起的有害影响，从而将PINN的收敛速度加速到高精度解决方案到MSS可靠性评估。通过提出的基于Pinn的框架，我们在几乎不受时间或依赖状态转换和系统尺度从小到介质时，研究其对MSS可靠性评估的应用程序的应用。结果表明，基于Pinn的框架在MSS可靠性评估中显示了通用和显着性能，并且Pinn中的PCGrad掺入了溶液质量和收敛速度的大量提高。

物理信息的神经网络（PINN）是神经网络（NNS），它们作为神经网络本身的组成部分编码模型方程，例如部分微分方程（PDE）。如今，PINN是用于求解PDE，分数方程，积分分化方程和随机PDE的。这种新颖的方法已成为一个多任务学习框架，在该框架中，NN必须在减少PDE残差的同时拟合观察到的数据。本文对PINNS的文献进行了全面的综述：虽然该研究的主要目标是表征这些网络及其相关的优势和缺点。该综述还试图将出版物纳入更广泛的基于搭配的物理知识的神经网络，这些神经网络构成了香草·皮恩（Vanilla Pinn）以及许多其他变体，例如物理受限的神经网络（PCNN），各种HP-VPINN，变量HP-VPINN，VPINN，VPINN，变体。和保守的Pinn（CPINN）。该研究表明，大多数研究都集中在通过不同的激活功能，梯度优化技术，神经网络结构和损耗功能结构来定制PINN。尽管使用PINN的应用范围广泛，但通过证明其在某些情况下比有限元方法（FEM）等经典数值技术更可行的能力，但仍有可能的进步，最著名的是尚未解决的理论问题。

深度学习方法的应用加快了挑战性电流问题的分辨率，最近显示出令人鼓舞的结果。但是，电力系统动力学不是快照，稳态操作。必须考虑这些动力学，以确保这些模型提供的最佳解决方案遵守实用的动力约束，避免频率波动和网格不稳定性。不幸的是，由于其高计算成本，基于普通或部分微分方程的动态系统模型通常不适合在控制或状态估计中直接应用。为了应对这些挑战，本文介绍了一种机器学习方法，以近乎实时近似电力系统动态的行为。该拟议的框架基于梯度增强的物理知识的神经网络（GPINNS），并编码有关电源系统的基本物理定律。拟议的GPINN的关键特征是它的训练能力而无需生成昂贵的培训数据。该论文说明了在单机无限总线系统中提出的方法在预测转子角度和频率的前进和反向问题中的潜力，以及不确定的参数，例如惯性和阻尼，以展示其在一系列电力系统应用中的潜力。

科学和工程学中的一个基本问题是设计最佳的控制政策，这些政策将给定的系统转向预期的结果。这项工作提出了同时求解给定系统状态和最佳控制信号的控制物理信息的神经网络（控制PINNS），在符合基础物理定律的一个阶段框架中。先前的方法使用两个阶段的框架，该框架首先建模然后按顺序控制系统。相比之下，控制PINN将所需的最佳条件纳入其体系结构和损耗函数中。通过解决以下开环的最佳控制问题来证明控制PINN的成功：（i）一个分析问题，（ii）一维热方程，以及（iii）二维捕食者捕食者问题。

Solute transport in porous media is relevant to a wide range of applications in hydrogeology, geothermal energy, underground CO2 storage, and a variety of chemical engineering systems. Due to the complexity of solute transport in heterogeneous porous media, traditional solvers require high resolution meshing and are therefore expensive computationally. This study explores the application of a mesh-free method based on deep learning to accelerate the simulation of solute transport. We employ Physics-informed Neural Networks (PiNN) to solve solute transport problems in homogeneous and heterogeneous porous media governed by the advection-dispersion equation. Unlike traditional neural networks that learn from large training datasets, PiNNs only leverage the strong form mathematical models to simultaneously solve for multiple dependent or independent field variables (e.g., pressure and solute concentration fields). In this study, we construct PiNN using a periodic activation function to better represent the complex physical signals (i.e., pressure) and their derivatives (i.e., velocity). Several case studies are designed with the intention of investigating the proposed PiNN's capability to handle different degrees of complexity. A manual hyperparameter tuning method is used to find the best PiNN architecture for each test case. Point-wise error and mean square error (MSE) measures are employed to assess the performance of PiNNs' predictions against the ground truth solutions obtained analytically or numerically using the finite element method. Our findings show that the predictions of PiNN are in good agreement with the ground truth solutions while reducing computational complexity and cost by, at least, three orders of magnitude.

动态系统参见在物理，生物学，化学等自然科学中广泛使用，以及电路分析，计算流体动力学和控制等工程学科。对于简单的系统，可以通过应用基本物理法来导出管理动态的微分方程。然而，对于更复杂的系统，这种方法变得非常困难。数据驱动建模是一种替代范式，可以使用真实系统的观察来了解系统的动态的近似值。近年来，对数据驱动的建模技术的兴趣增加，特别是神经网络已被证明提供了解决广泛任务的有效框架。本文提供了使用神经网络构建动态系统模型的不同方式的调查。除了基础概述外，我们还审查了相关的文献，概述了这些建模范式必须克服的数值模拟中最重要的挑战。根据审查的文献和确定的挑战，我们提供了关于有前途的研究领域的讨论。

物理知识的神经网络（PINNS）最近由于解决前进和反向问题的能力而受到了很多关注。为了训练与PINN相关的深层神经网络，通常会使用不同损失项的加权总和构建总损耗函数，然后尝试将其最小化。这种方法通常会成为解决刚性方程式的问题，因为它不能考虑自适应增量。许多研究报告说，PINN的性能不佳及其在模拟僵硬的普通差分条件（ODE）条件下模拟僵硬的化学活动问题方面的挑战。研究表明，刚度是PINN在模拟刚性动力学系统中失败的主要原因。在这里，我们通过提出减少损失函数的弱形式来解决这个问题，这导致了新的PINN结构（进一步称为还原Pinn），该结构利用降低的集成方法来使Pinn能够求解僵硬的化学动力学。所提出的还原细菌可以应用于涉及僵硬动力学的各种反应扩散系统。为此，我们将初始价值问题（IVP）转换为它们的等效积分形式，并使用物理知识的神经网络求解所得的积分方程。在我们派生的基于积分的优化过程中，只有一个术语，而没有明确合并与普通微分方程（ODE）和初始条件（ICS）相关的损失项。为了说明减少细菌的功能，我们用它来模拟多个僵硬/轻度的二阶频率。我们表明，还原的Pinn可准确捕获刚性标量颂歌的溶液。我们还针对线性ODES的硬质系统验证了还原的Pinn。

Recent years have witnessed a growth in mathematics for deep learning--which seeks a deeper understanding of the concepts of deep learning with mathematics, and explores how to make it more robust--and deep learning for mathematics, where deep learning algorithms are used to solve problems in mathematics. The latter has popularised the field of scientific machine learning where deep learning is applied to problems in scientific computing. Specifically, more and more neural network architectures have been developed to solve specific classes of partial differential equations (PDEs). Such methods exploit properties that are inherent to PDEs and thus solve the PDEs better than classical feed-forward neural networks, recurrent neural networks, and convolutional neural networks. This has had a great impact in the area of mathematical modeling where parametric PDEs are widely used to model most natural and physical processes arising in science and engineering, In this work, we review such methods and extend them for parametric studies as well as for solving the related inverse problems. We equally proceed to show their relevance in some industrial applications.

Despite great progress in simulating multiphysics problems using the numerical discretization of partial differential equations (PDEs), one still cannot seamlessly incorporate noisy data into existing algorithms, mesh generation remains complex, and high-dimensional problems governed by parameterized PDEs cannot be tackled. Moreover, solving inverse problems with hidden physics is often prohibitively expensive and requires different formulations and elaborate computer codes. Machine learning has emerged as a promising alternative, but training deep neural networks requires big data, not always available for scientific problems. Instead, such networks can be trained from additional information obtained by enforcing the physical laws (for example, at random points in the continuous space-time domain). Such physics-informed learning integrates (noisy) data and mathematical models, and implements them through neural networks or other kernel-based regression networks. Moreover, it may be possible to design specialized network architectures that automatically satisfy some of the physical invariants for better accuracy, faster training and improved generalization. Here, we review some of the prevailing trends in embedding physics into machine learning, present some of the current capabilities and limitations and discuss diverse applications of physics-informed learning both for forward and inverse problems, including discovering hidden physics and tackling high-dimensional problems.

Given ample experimental data from a system governed by differential equations, it is possible to use deep learning techniques to construct the underlying differential operators. In this work we perform symbolic discovery of differential operators in a situation where there is sparse experimental data. This small data regime in machine learning can be made tractable by providing our algorithms with prior information about the underlying dynamics. Physics Informed Neural Networks (PINNs) have been very successful in this regime (reconstructing entire ODE solutions using only a single point or entire PDE solutions with very few measurements of the initial condition). We modify the PINN approach by adding a neural network that learns a representation of unknown hidden terms in the differential equation. The algorithm yields both a surrogate solution to the differential equation and a black-box representation of the hidden terms. These hidden term neural networks can then be converted into symbolic equations using symbolic regression techniques like AI Feynman. In order to achieve convergence of these neural networks, we provide our algorithms with (noisy) measurements of both the initial condition as well as (synthetic) experimental data obtained at later times. We demonstrate strong performance of this approach even when provided with very few measurements of noisy data in both the ODE and PDE regime.

在本文中，我们演示并调查了一些挑战，这些挑战阻碍了使用物理知识的神经网络解决复杂问题的方式。特别是，我们可视化受过训练的模型的损失景观，并在存在物理学的情况下对反向传播梯度进行灵敏度分析。我们的发现表明，现有的方法产生了难以导航的高度非凸损失景观。此外，高阶PDE污染了可能阻碍或防止收敛的反向传播梯度。然后，我们提出了一种新的方法，该方法绕过了高阶PDE操作员的计算并减轻反向传播梯度的污染。为此，我们降低了解决方案搜索空间的维度，并通过非平滑解决方案促进学习问题。我们的配方还提供了一种反馈机制，可帮助我们的模型适应地专注于难以学习的领域的复杂区域。然后，我们通过调整Lagrange乘数方法来提出一个无约束的二重问题。我们运用我们的方法来解决由线性和非线性PDE控制的几个具有挑战性的基准问题。

科学机器学习（Sciml）的出现在思路科学领域开辟了一个新的领域，通过在基于物理和数据建模的界面的界面中开发方法。为此，近年来介绍了物理知识的神经网络（Pinns），通过在所谓的焊点上纳入物理知识来应对培训数据的稀缺。在这项工作中，我们研究了Pinns关于用于强制基于物理惩罚术语的配偶数量的预测性能。我们表明Pinns可能会失败，学习通过定义来满足物理惩罚术语的琐碎解决方案。我们制定了一种替代的采样方法和新的惩罚术语，使我们能够在具有竞争性结果的数据稀缺设置中纠正Pinns中的核心问题，同时减少最多80 \％的基准问题所需的搭配数量。

最近在科学机器学习的工作已经开发出所谓的物理信息的神经网络（Pinn）模型。典型方法是将物理域知识纳入经验丢失功能的软限制，并使用现有的机器学习方法来培训模型。我们展示了，虽然现有的Pinn方法可以学习良好的模型，但它们可以轻松地未能学习相关的物理现象，甚至更复杂的问题。特别是，我们分析了众多不同的普遍物理兴趣的情况，包括使用对流，反应和扩散运营商学习微分方程。我们提供了证据表明Pinns中的软正规化，涉及基于PDE的差分运营商，可以引入许多微妙的问题，包括使问题更加不良。重要的是，我们表明，这些可能的失败模式不是由于NN架构中缺乏富有效力，但Pinn的设置使得损失景观很难优化。然后，我们描述了两个有希望的解决方案来解决这些故障模式。第一种方法是使用课程正则化，其中Pinn的丢失项从简单的PDE正则化开始，并且随着NN训练而变得逐渐变得更加复杂。第二种方法是将问题构成为序列到序列的学习任务，而不是学习一次性地预测整个时空。广泛的测试表明，与常规Pinn训练相比，我们可以通过这些方法实现最多1-2个数量级。

我们提出了一种基于具有子域（CENN）的神经网络的保守能量方法，其中允许通过径向基函数（RBF），特定解决方案神经网络和通用神经网络构成满足没有边界惩罚的基本边界条件的可允许功能。与具有子域的强形式Pinn相比，接口处的损耗术语具有较低的阶数。所提出的方法的优点是效率更高，更准确，更小的近双达，而不是具有子域的强形式Pinn。所提出的方法的另一个优点是它可以基于可允许功能的特殊结构适用于复杂的几何形状。为了分析其性能，所提出的方法宫殿用于模拟代表性PDE，这些实施例包括强不连续性，奇异性，复杂边界，非线性和异质问题。此外，在处理异质问题时，它优于其他方法。

我们制定了一类由物理驱动的深层变量模型（PDDLVM），以学习参数偏微分方程（PDES）的参数到解决方案（正向）和解决方案到参数（逆）图。我们的公式利用有限元方法（FEM），深神经网络和概率建模来组装一个深层概率框架，在该框架中，向前和逆图通过连贯的不确定性量化近似。我们的概率模型明确合并了基于参数PDE的密度和可训练的解决方案到参数网络，而引入的摊销变异家庭假定参数到解决方案网络，所有这些网络均经过联合培训。此外，所提出的方法不需要任何昂贵的PDE解决方案，并且仅在训练时间内对物理信息进行了信息，该方法允许PDE的实时仿真和培训后的逆问题解决方案的产生，绕开了对FEM操作的需求，以相当的准确性，以便于FEM解决方案。提出的框架进一步允许无缝集成观察到的数据，以解决反问题和构建生成模型。我们证明了方法对非线性泊松问题，具有复杂3D几何形状的弹性壳以及整合通用物理信息信息的神经网络（PINN）体系结构的有效性。与传统的FEM求解器相比，训练后，我们最多达到了三个数量级的速度，同时输出连贯的不确定性估计值。

Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) constitute a flexible approach to both finding solutions and identifying parameters of partial differential equations. Most works on the topic assume noiseless data, or data contaminated by weak Gaussian noise. We show that the standard PINN framework breaks down in case of non-Gaussian noise. We give a way of resolving this fundamental issue and we propose to jointly train an energy-based model (EBM) to learn the correct noise distribution. We illustrate the improved performance of our approach using multiple examples.

作为深度学习的典型{Application}，物理知识的神经网络（PINN）{已成功用于找到部分微分方程（PDES）的数值解决方案（PDES），但是如何提高有限准确性仍然是PINN的巨大挑战。 。在这项工作中，我们引入了一种新方法，对称性增强物理学知情的神经网络（SPINN），其中PDE的谎言对称性诱导的不变表面条件嵌入PINN的损失函数中，以提高PINN的准确性。我们分别通过两组十组独立数值实验来测试SPINN的有效性，分别用于热方程，Korteweg-De Vries（KDV）方程和潜在的汉堡{方程式}，这表明Spinn的性能比PINN更好，而PINN的训练点和更简单的结构都更好神经网络。此外，我们讨论了Spinn的计算开销，以PINN的相对计算成本，并表明Spinn的训练时间没有明显的增加，甚至在某些情况下还不是PINN。

基于神经网络的求解部分微分方程的方法由于其简单性和灵活性来表示偏微分方程的解决方案而引起了相当大的关注。在训练神经网络时，网络倾向于学习与低频分量相对应的全局特征，而高频分量以较慢的速率（F原理）近似。对于解决方案包含广泛尺度的一类等式，由于无法捕获高频分量，网络训练过程可能会遭受缓慢的收敛性和低精度。在这项工作中，我们提出了一种分层方法来提高神经网络解决方案的收敛速率和准确性。所提出的方法包括多训练水平，其中引导新引入的神经网络来学习先前级别近似的残余。通过神经网络训练过程的性​​质，高级校正倾向于捕获高频分量。我们通过一套线性和非线性部分微分方程验证所提出的分层方法的效率和稳健性。

The identification of material parameters occurring in constitutive models has a wide range of applications in practice. One of these applications is the monitoring and assessment of the actual condition of infrastructure buildings, as the material parameters directly reflect the resistance of the structures to external impacts. Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) have recently emerged as a suitable method for solving inverse problems. The advantages of this method are a straightforward inclusion of observation data. Unlike grid-based methods, such as the finite element method updating (FEMU) approach, no computational grid and no interpolation of the data is required. In the current work, we aim to further develop PINNs towards the calibration of the linear-elastic constitutive model from full-field displacement and global force data in a realistic regime. We show that normalization and conditioning of the optimization problem play a crucial role in this process. Therefore, among others, we identify the material parameters for initial estimates and balance the individual terms in the loss function. In order to reduce the dependence of the identified material parameters on local errors in the displacement approximation, we base the identification not on the stress boundary conditions but instead on the global balance of internal and external work. In addition, we found that we get a better posed inverse problem if we reformulate it in terms of bulk and shear modulus instead of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. We demonstrate that the enhanced PINNs are capable of identifying material parameters from both experimental one-dimensional data and synthetic full-field displacement data in a realistic regime. Since displacement data measured by, e.g., a digital image correlation (DIC) system is noisy, we additionally investigate the robustness of the method to different levels of noise.

Deep learning has achieved remarkable success in diverse applications; however, its use in solving partial differential equations (PDEs) has emerged only recently. Here, we present an overview of physics-informed neural networks (PINNs), which embed a PDE into the loss of the neural network using automatic differentiation. The PINN algorithm is simple, and it can be applied to different types of PDEs, including integro-differential equations, fractional PDEs, and stochastic PDEs. Moreover, from the implementation point of view, PINNs solve inverse problems as easily as forward problems. We propose a new residual-based adaptive refinement (RAR) method to improve the training efficiency of PINNs. For pedagogical reasons, we compare the PINN algorithm to a standard finite element method. We also present a Python library for PINNs, DeepXDE, which is designed to serve both as an education tool to be used in the classroom as well as a research tool for solving problems in computational science and engineering. Specifically, DeepXDE can solve forward problems given initial and boundary conditions, as well as inverse problems given some extra measurements. DeepXDE supports complex-geometry domains based on the technique of constructive solid geometry, and enables the user code to be compact, resembling closely the mathematical formulation. We introduce the usage of DeepXDE and its customizability, and we also demonstrate the capability of PINNs and the user-friendliness of DeepXDE for five different examples. More broadly, DeepXDE contributes to the more rapid development of the emerging Scientific Machine Learning field.