在存在未衡量的混杂因素的情况下,我们解决了数据融合的治疗效应估计问题,即在不同的治疗分配机制下收集的多个数据集。例如,营销人员可以在不同时间/地点为相同产品分配不同的广告策略。为了处理由未衡量的混杂因素和数据融合引起的偏见,我们建议将观察数据分为多组(每个组具有独立治疗分配机制),然后将组指标显式地模拟为潜在的组仪器变量(LATGIV),将其模拟为实施基于IV的回归。在本文中,我们概念化了这种思想,并开发了一个统一的框架,以(1)估计跨群体观察到的变量的分布差异; (2)对不同治疗分配机制的LATGIV模型; (3)插入latgivs以估计治疗响应函数。经验结果证明了与最新方法相比,LATGIV的优势。
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Causal inference is the process of using assumptions, study designs, and estimation strategies to draw conclusions about the causal relationships between variables based on data. This allows researchers to better understand the underlying mechanisms at work in complex systems and make more informed decisions. In many settings, we may not fully observe all the confounders that affect both the treatment and outcome variables, complicating the estimation of causal effects. To address this problem, a growing literature in both causal inference and machine learning proposes to use Instrumental Variables (IV). This paper serves as the first effort to systematically and comprehensively introduce and discuss the IV methods and their applications in both causal inference and machine learning. First, we provide the formal definition of IVs and discuss the identification problem of IV regression methods under different assumptions. Second, we categorize the existing work on IV methods into three streams according to the focus on the proposed methods, including two-stage least squares with IVs, control function with IVs, and evaluation of IVs. For each stream, we present both the classical causal inference methods, and recent developments in the machine learning literature. Then, we introduce a variety of applications of IV methods in real-world scenarios and provide a summary of the available datasets and algorithms. Finally, we summarize the literature, discuss the open problems and suggest promising future research directions for IV methods and their applications. We also develop a toolkit of IVs methods reviewed in this survey at https://github.com/causal-machine-learning-lab/mliv.
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Although understanding and characterizing causal effects have become essential in observational studies, it is challenging when the confounders are high-dimensional. In this article, we develop a general framework $\textit{CausalEGM}$ for estimating causal effects by encoding generative modeling, which can be applied in both binary and continuous treatment settings. Under the potential outcome framework with unconfoundedness, we establish a bidirectional transformation between the high-dimensional confounders space and a low-dimensional latent space where the density is known (e.g., multivariate normal distribution). Through this, CausalEGM simultaneously decouples the dependencies of confounders on both treatment and outcome and maps the confounders to the low-dimensional latent space. By conditioning on the low-dimensional latent features, CausalEGM can estimate the causal effect for each individual or the average causal effect within a population. Our theoretical analysis shows that the excess risk for CausalEGM can be bounded through empirical process theory. Under an assumption on encoder-decoder networks, the consistency of the estimate can be guaranteed. In a series of experiments, CausalEGM demonstrates superior performance over existing methods for both binary and continuous treatments. Specifically, we find CausalEGM to be substantially more powerful than competing methods in the presence of large sample sizes and high dimensional confounders. The software of CausalEGM is freely available at https://github.com/SUwonglab/CausalEGM.
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我们研究了在反倾向得分加权的框架内使用连续处理的观察性因果推断的问题。为了获得稳定的权重,我们设计了一种基于熵平衡的新算法,该算法可以学习权重,以直接使用端到端优化最大化因果推理精度。在优化过程中,这些权重自动调整为使用的特定数据集和正在使用的因果推理算法。我们提供了证明我们方法一致性的理论分析。使用合成和现实世界数据,我们表明我们的算法估计因果效应比基线熵平衡更准确。
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仪器变量(IVS),治疗随机化的来源,条件无关的结果,在因果推理中发挥着重要作用,不观察到的混乱。然而,现有的基于IV的反事实预测方法需要良好预定义的IVS,而它是一种艺术而不是科学,可以在许多现实世界场景中找到有效的IV。此外,通过违反有效IVS的条件,预定的手工制作的IV可能是弱或错误的。这些棘手的事实阻碍了基于IV的反事实预测方法的应用。在本文中,我们提出了一种新颖的自动仪器可变分解(AUTOV)算法,以自动生成从观察到的变量(IV候选)的IVS角色的表示。具体地,我们让学习的IV表示通过相互信息最大化和最小化限制的结果,通过互动和排除条件满足相关性条件。我们还通过鼓励他们与治疗和结果相关,学习混乱的陈述。 IV和混淆器表示竞争其在对抗性游戏中的限制的信息,这使我们能够获得基于IV的反事实预测的有效IV表示。广泛的实验表明,我们的方法为基于准确的IV的反事实预测生成有效的IV表示。
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在广泛的任务中,在包括医疗处理,广告和营销和政策制定的发​​展中,对观测数据进行因果推断非常有用。使用观察数据进行因果推断有两种重大挑战:治疗分配异质性(\ Texit {IE},治疗和未经处理的群体之间的差异),并且没有反事实数据(\ TEXTIT {IE},不知道是什么已经发生了,如果确实得到治疗的人,反而尚未得到治疗)。通过组合结构化推论和有针对性的学习来解决这两个挑战。在结构方面,我们将联合分布分解为风险,混淆,仪器和杂项因素,以及在目标学习方面,我们应用来自影响曲线的规则器,以减少残余偏差。进行了一项消融研究,对基准数据集进行评估表明,TVAE具有竞争力和最先进的艺术表现。
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在因果关系中,估计治疗的效果而不会混淆推断仍然是一个主要问题,因为需要在没有治疗的情况下评估两种情况的结果。无法同时观察它们,潜在结果的估计仍然是一个具有挑战性的任务。我们提出了一种创新的方法,其中问题是作为缺失的数据模型重新重新制作。目的是估计\ emph {因果群体}的隐藏分布,定义为治疗和结果的函数。通过先前取决于处理和结果信息的原因自动编码器(CAE),使潜在空间与目标群体的概率分布增强。在减少到潜伏空间之后重建该特征,并由在网络的中间层中引入的掩模约束,其中包含治疗和结果信息。
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观察数据中估算单个治疗效果(ITE)在许多领域,例如个性化医学等领域。但是,实际上,治疗分配通常被未观察到的变量混淆,因此引入了偏见。消除偏见的一种补救措施是使用仪器变量(IVS)。此类环境在医学中广泛存在(例如,将合规性用作二进制IV的试验)。在本文中,我们提出了一个新颖的,可靠的机器学习框架,称为MRIV,用于使用二进制IV估算ITES,从而产生无偏见的ITE估计器。与以前的二进制IV的工作不同,我们的框架通过伪结果回归直接估算了ITE。 (1)我们提供了一个理论分析,我们表明我们的框架产生了多重稳定的收敛速率:即使几个滋扰估计器的收敛缓慢,我们的ITE估计器也会达到快速收敛。 (2)我们进一步表明,我们的框架渐近地优于最先进的插件IV方法,以进行ITE估计。 (3)我们以理论结果为基础,并提出了一种使用二进制IVS的ITE估算的定制的,称为MRIV-NET的深度神经网络结构。在各种计算实验中,我们从经验上证明了我们的MRIV-NET实现最先进的性能。据我们所知,我们的MRIV是第一个机器学习框架,用于估算显示出倍增功能的二进制IV设置。
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传统的因果推理方法利用观察性研究数据来估计潜在治疗的观察到的差异和未观察到的结果,称为条件平均治疗效果(CATE)。然而,凯特就对应于仅第一刻的比较,因此可能不足以反映治疗效果的全部情况。作为替代方案,估计全部潜在结果分布可以提供更多的见解。但是,估计治疗效果的现有方法潜在的结果分布通常对这些分布施加限制性或简单的假设。在这里,我们提出了合作因果网络(CCN),这是一种新颖的方法,它通过学习全部潜在结果分布而超出了CATE的估计。通过CCN框架估算结果分布不需要对基础数据生成过程的限制性假设。此外,CCN促进了每种可能处理的效用的估计,并允许通过效用函数进行特定的特定变异。 CCN不仅将结果估计扩展到传统的风险差异之外,而且还可以通过定义灵活的比较来实现更全面的决策过程。根据因果文献中通常做出的假设,我们表明CCN学习了渐近捕获真正潜在结果分布的分布。此外,我们提出了一种调整方法,该方法在经验上可以有效地减轻观察数据中治疗组之间的样本失衡。最后,我们评估了CCN在多个合成和半合成实验中的性能。我们证明,与现有的贝叶斯和深层生成方法相比,CCN学会了改进的分布估计值,以及对各种效用功能的改进决策。
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在本文中,我们研究了在一组单位上进行的设计实验的问题,例如在线市场中的用户或用户组,以多个时间段,例如数周或数月。这些实验特别有助于研究对当前和未来结果具有因果影响的治疗(瞬时和滞后的影响)。设计问题涉及在实验之前或期间选择每个单元的治疗时间,以便最精确地估计瞬间和滞后的效果,实验后。这种治疗决策的优化可以通过降低其样本尺寸要求,直接最小化实验的机会成本。优化是我们提供近最优解的NP-Hard整数程序,当时在开始时进行设计决策(固定样本大小设计)。接下来,我们研究允许在实验期间进行适应性决策的顺序实验,并且还可能早期停止实验,进一步降低其成本。然而,这些实验的顺序性质使设计阶段和估计阶段复杂化。我们提出了一种新的算法,PGAE,通过自适应地制造治疗决策,估算治疗效果和绘制有效的实验后推理来解决这些挑战。 PGAE将来自贝叶斯统计,动态编程和样品分裂的思想结合起来。使用来自多个域的真实数据集的合成实验,我们证明了与基准相比,我们的固定样本尺寸和顺序实验的提出解决方案将实验的机会成本降低了50%和70%。
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Causal learning has attracted much attention in recent years because causality reveals the essential relationship between things and indicates how the world progresses. However, there are many problems and bottlenecks in traditional causal learning methods, such as high-dimensional unstructured variables, combinatorial optimization problems, unknown intervention, unobserved confounders, selection bias and estimation bias. Deep causal learning, that is, causal learning based on deep neural networks, brings new insights for addressing these problems. While many deep learning-based causal discovery and causal inference methods have been proposed, there is a lack of reviews exploring the internal mechanism of deep learning to improve causal learning. In this article, we comprehensively review how deep learning can contribute to causal learning by addressing conventional challenges from three aspects: representation, discovery, and inference. We point out that deep causal learning is important for the theoretical extension and application expansion of causal science and is also an indispensable part of general artificial intelligence. We conclude the article with a summary of open issues and potential directions for future work.
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因果推理中的一个重要问题是分解治疗结果对不同因果途径的总效果,并量化每种途径中的因果效果。例如,在因果公平中,作为男性雇员的总效果(即治疗)构成了对年收入(即,结果)的直接影响,并通过员工的职业(即调解人)和间接效应。因果调解分析(CMA)是一个正式的统计框架,用于揭示这种潜在的因果机制。 CMA在观察研究中的一个主要挑战正在处理混淆,导致治疗,调解员和结果之间导致虚假因果关系的变量。常规方法假设暗示可以测量所有混血器的顺序忽略性,这在实践中通常是不可核法的。这项工作旨在规避严格的顺序忽略性假设,并考虑隐藏的混杂。借鉴代理策略和深度学习的最新进展,我们建议同时揭示特征隐藏混杂物的潜在变量,并估计因果效应。使用合成和半合成数据集的经验评估验证了所提出的方法的有效性。我们进一步展示了我们对因果公平分析的方法的潜力。
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在许多现实世界应用中,例如市场和医学,基于短期替代物的长期因果影响是一个重大但具有挑战性的问题。尽管在某些领域取得了成功,但大多数现有方法以理想主义和简单的方式估算了因果影响 - 忽略了短期结果之间的因果结构,而将所有这些因果关系视为代孕。但是,这种方法不能很好地应用于现实世界中,其中部分观察到的替代物与短期结局中的代理混合在一起。为此,我们开发了灵活的方法激光器,以估计在更现实的情况下观察或观察到代理的更现实的情况。 (ivae)在所有候选者上恢复所有有效的替代物,而无需区分观察到的替代物或潜在代理人的代理。在回收的替代物的帮助下,我们进一步设计了对长期因果影响的公正估计。关于现实世界和半合成数据集的广泛实验结果证明了我们提出的方法的有效性。
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因果推断对于跨业务参与,医疗和政策制定等领域的数据驱动决策至关重要。然而,关于因果发现的研究已经与推理方法分开发展,从而阻止了两个领域方法的直接组合。在这项工作中,我们开发了深层端到端因果推理(DECI),这是一种基于流动的非线性添加噪声模型,该模型具有观察数据,并且可以执行因果发现和推理,包括有条件的平均治疗效果(CATE) )估计。我们提供了理论上的保证,即DECI可以根据标准因果发现假设恢复地面真实因果图。受应用影响的激励,我们将该模型扩展到具有缺失值的异质,混合型数据,从而允许连续和离散的治疗决策。我们的结果表明,与因果发现的相关基线相比,DECI的竞争性能和(c)在合成数据集和因果机器学习基准测试基准的一千多个实验中,跨数据类型和缺失水平进行了估计。
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There is intense interest in applying machine learning to problems of causal inference in fields such as healthcare, economics and education. In particular, individual-level causal inference has important applications such as precision medicine. We give a new theoretical analysis and family of algorithms for predicting individual treatment effect (ITE) from observational data, under the assumption known as strong ignorability. The algorithms learn a "balanced" representation such that the induced treated and control distributions look similar. We give a novel, simple and intuitive generalization-error bound showing that the expected ITE estimation error of a representation is bounded by a sum of the standard generalization-error of that representation and the distance between the treated and control distributions induced by the representation. We use Integral Probability Metrics to measure distances between distributions, deriving explicit bounds for the Wasserstein and Maximum Mean Discrepancy (MMD) distances. Experiments on real and simulated data show the new algorithms match or outperform the state-of-the-art.
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In various fields of data science, researchers are often interested in estimating the ratio of conditional expectation functions (CEFR). Specifically in causal inference problems, it is sometimes natural to consider ratio-based treatment effects, such as odds ratios and hazard ratios, and even difference-based treatment effects are identified as CEFR in some empirically relevant settings. This chapter develops the general framework for estimation and inference on CEFR, which allows the use of flexible machine learning for infinite-dimensional nuisance parameters. In the first stage of the framework, the orthogonal signals are constructed using debiased machine learning techniques to mitigate the negative impacts of the regularization bias in the nuisance estimates on the target estimates. The signals are then combined with a novel series estimator tailored for CEFR. We derive the pointwise and uniform asymptotic results for estimation and inference on CEFR, including the validity of the Gaussian bootstrap, and provide low-level sufficient conditions to apply the proposed framework to some specific examples. We demonstrate the finite-sample performance of the series estimator constructed under the proposed framework by numerical simulations. Finally, we apply the proposed method to estimate the causal effect of the 401(k) program on household assets.
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因果推断能够估计治疗效果(即,治疗结果的因果效果),使各个领域的决策受益。本研究中的一个基本挑战是观察数据的治疗偏见。为了提高对因果推断的观察研究的有效性,基于代表的方法作为最先进的方法表明了治疗效果估计的卓越性能。基于大多数基于表示的方法假设所有观察到的协变量都是预处理的(即,不受治疗影响的影响),并学习这些观察到的协变量的平衡表示,以估算治疗效果。不幸的是,这种假设往往在实践中往往是太严格的要求,因为一些协调因子是通过对治疗的干预进行改变(即,后治疗)来改变。相比之下,从不变的协变量中学到的平衡表示因此偏置治疗效果估计。
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在许多学科中,异质治疗效果(HTE)的估计至关重要,从个性化医学到经济学等等。在随机试验和观察性研究中,随机森林已被证明是一种灵活而有力的HTE估计方法。尤其是Athey,Tibshirani和Wager(2019)引入的“因果森林”,以及包装GRF中的R实施。 Seibold,Zeileis和Hothorn(2018)引入了一种称为“基于模型的森林”的相关方法,该方法旨在随机试验,并同时捕获预后和预测变量的效果,并在R包装模型中进行模块化实现。 。在这里,我们提出了一种统一的观点,它超出了理论动机,并研究了哪些计算元素使因果森林如此成功,以及如何将它们与基于模型的森林的优势融合在一起。为此,我们表明,可以通过相同的参数和L2损耗下加性模型的模型假设来理解这两种方法。这种理论上的见解使我们能够实施“基于模型的因果林”的几种口味,并在计算机中剖析其不同元素。将原始的因果森林和基于模型的森林与基准研究中的新混合版本进行了比较,该研究探讨了随机试验和观察环境。在随机设置中,两种方法都执行了AKIN。如果在数据生成过程中存在混淆,我们发现与相应倾向的治疗指标的局部核心是良好性能的主要驱动力。结果的局部核心不太重要,并且可以通过相对于预后和预测效应的同时拆分选择来代替或增强。
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作为因果推断中的重要问题,我们讨论了治疗效果(TES)的估计。代表混淆器作为潜在的变量,我们提出了完整的VAE,这是一个变形AutoEncoder(VAE)的新变种,其具有足以识别TES的预后分数的动机。我们的VAE也自然地提供了使用其之前用于治疗组的陈述。(半)合成数据集的实验显示在各种环境下的最先进的性能,包括不观察到的混淆。基于我们模型的可识别性,我们在不协调下证明TES的识别,并讨论(可能)扩展到更难的设置。
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The intersection of causal inference and machine learning for decision-making is rapidly expanding, but the default decision criterion remains an \textit{average} of individual causal outcomes across a population. In practice, various operational restrictions ensure that a decision-maker's utility is not realized as an \textit{average} but rather as an \textit{output} of a downstream decision-making problem (such as matching, assignment, network flow, minimizing predictive risk). In this work, we develop a new framework for off-policy evaluation with \textit{policy-dependent} linear optimization responses: causal outcomes introduce stochasticity in objective function coefficients. Under this framework, a decision-maker's utility depends on the policy-dependent optimization, which introduces a fundamental challenge of \textit{optimization} bias even for the case of policy evaluation. We construct unbiased estimators for the policy-dependent estimand by a perturbation method, and discuss asymptotic variance properties for a set of adjusted plug-in estimators. Lastly, attaining unbiased policy evaluation allows for policy optimization: we provide a general algorithm for optimizing causal interventions. We corroborate our theoretical results with numerical simulations.
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