Causal inference is the process of using assumptions, study designs, and estimation strategies to draw conclusions about the causal relationships between variables based on data. This allows researchers to better understand the underlying mechanisms at work in complex systems and make more informed decisions. In many settings, we may not fully observe all the confounders that affect both the treatment and outcome variables, complicating the estimation of causal effects. To address this problem, a growing literature in both causal inference and machine learning proposes to use Instrumental Variables (IV). This paper serves as the first effort to systematically and comprehensively introduce and discuss the IV methods and their applications in both causal inference and machine learning. First, we provide the formal definition of IVs and discuss the identification problem of IV regression methods under different assumptions. Second, we categorize the existing work on IV methods into three streams according to the focus on the proposed methods, including two-stage least squares with IVs, control function with IVs, and evaluation of IVs. For each stream, we present both the classical causal inference methods, and recent developments in the machine learning literature. Then, we introduce a variety of applications of IV methods in real-world scenarios and provide a summary of the available datasets and algorithms. Finally, we summarize the literature, discuss the open problems and suggest promising future research directions for IV methods and their applications. We also develop a toolkit of IVs methods reviewed in this survey at https://github.com/causal-machine-learning-lab/mliv.
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在存在未衡量的混杂因素的情况下,我们解决了数据融合的治疗效应估计问题,即在不同的治疗分配机制下收集的多个数据集。例如,营销人员可以在不同时间/地点为相同产品分配不同的广告策略。为了处理由未衡量的混杂因素和数据融合引起的偏见,我们建议将观察数据分为多组(每个组具有独立治疗分配机制),然后将组指标显式地模拟为潜在的组仪器变量(LATGIV),将其模拟为实施基于IV的回归。在本文中,我们概念化了这种思想,并开发了一个统一的框架,以(1)估计跨群体观察到的变量的分布差异; (2)对不同治疗分配机制的LATGIV模型; (3)插入latgivs以估计治疗响应函数。经验结果证明了与最新方法相比,LATGIV的优势。
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因果关系的概念在人类认知中起着重要作用。在过去的几十年中,在许多领域(例如计算机科学,医学,经济学和教育)中,因果推论已经得到很好的发展。随着深度学习技术的发展,它越来越多地用于针对反事实数据的因果推断。通常,深层因果模型将协变量的特征映射到表示空间,然后设计各种客观优化函数,以根据不同的优化方法公正地估算反事实数据。本文重点介绍了深层因果模型的调查,其核心贡献如下:1)我们在多种疗法和连续剂量治疗下提供相关指标; 2)我们从时间开发和方法分类的角度综合了深层因果模型的全面概述; 3)我们协助有关相关数据集和源代码的详细且全面的分类和分析。
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Causal learning has attracted much attention in recent years because causality reveals the essential relationship between things and indicates how the world progresses. However, there are many problems and bottlenecks in traditional causal learning methods, such as high-dimensional unstructured variables, combinatorial optimization problems, unknown intervention, unobserved confounders, selection bias and estimation bias. Deep causal learning, that is, causal learning based on deep neural networks, brings new insights for addressing these problems. While many deep learning-based causal discovery and causal inference methods have been proposed, there is a lack of reviews exploring the internal mechanism of deep learning to improve causal learning. In this article, we comprehensively review how deep learning can contribute to causal learning by addressing conventional challenges from three aspects: representation, discovery, and inference. We point out that deep causal learning is important for the theoretical extension and application expansion of causal science and is also an indispensable part of general artificial intelligence. We conclude the article with a summary of open issues and potential directions for future work.
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This review presents empirical researchers with recent advances in causal inference, and stresses the paradigmatic shifts that must be undertaken in moving from traditional statistical analysis to causal analysis of multivariate data. Special emphasis is placed on the assumptions that underly all causal inferences, the languages used in formulating those assumptions, the conditional nature of all causal and counterfactual claims, and the methods that have been developed for the assessment of such claims. These advances are illustrated using a general theory of causation based on the Structural Causal Model (SCM) described in Pearl (2000a), which subsumes and unifies other approaches to causation, and provides a coherent mathematical foundation for the analysis of causes and counterfactuals. In particular, the paper surveys the development of mathematical tools for inferring (from a combination of data and assumptions) answers to three types of causal queries: (1) queries about the effects of potential interventions, (also called "causal effects" or "policy evaluation") (2) queries about probabilities of counterfactuals, (including assessment of "regret," "attribution" or "causes of effects") and (3) queries about direct and indirect effects (also known as "mediation"). Finally, the paper defines the formal and conceptual relationships between the structural and potential-outcome frameworks and presents tools for a symbiotic analysis that uses the strong features of both.
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估计平均因果效应的理想回归(如果有)是什么?我们在离散协变量的设置中研究了这个问题,从而得出了各种分层估计器的有限样本方差的表达式。这种方法阐明了许多广泛引用的结果的基本统计现象。我们的博览会结合了研究因果效应估计的三种不同的方法论传统的见解:潜在结果,因果图和具有加性误差的结构模型。
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因果推断能够估计治疗效果(即,治疗结果的因果效果),使各个领域的决策受益。本研究中的一个基本挑战是观察数据的治疗偏见。为了提高对因果推断的观察研究的有效性,基于代表的方法作为最先进的方法表明了治疗效果估计的卓越性能。基于大多数基于表示的方法假设所有观察到的协变量都是预处理的(即,不受治疗影响的影响),并学习这些观察到的协变量的平衡表示,以估算治疗效果。不幸的是,这种假设往往在实践中往往是太严格的要求,因为一些协调因子是通过对治疗的干预进行改变(即,后治疗)来改变。相比之下,从不变的协变量中学到的平衡表示因此偏置治疗效果估计。
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仪器变量(IVS),治疗随机化的来源,条件无关的结果,在因果推理中发挥着重要作用,不观察到的混乱。然而,现有的基于IV的反事实预测方法需要良好预定义的IVS,而它是一种艺术而不是科学,可以在许多现实世界场景中找到有效的IV。此外,通过违反有效IVS的条件,预定的手工制作的IV可能是弱或错误的。这些棘手的事实阻碍了基于IV的反事实预测方法的应用。在本文中,我们提出了一种新颖的自动仪器可变分解(AUTOV)算法,以自动生成从观察到的变量(IV候选)的IVS角色的表示。具体地,我们让学习的IV表示通过相互信息最大化和最小化限制的结果,通过互动和排除条件满足相关性条件。我们还通过鼓励他们与治疗和结果相关,学习混乱的陈述。 IV和混淆器表示竞争其在对抗性游戏中的限制的信息,这使我们能够获得基于IV的反事实预测的有效IV表示。广泛的实验表明,我们的方法为基于准确的IV的反事实预测生成有效的IV表示。
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因果关系是理解世界的科学努力的基本组成部分。不幸的是,在心理学和社会科学中,因果关系仍然是禁忌。由于越来越多的建议采用因果方法进行研究的重要性,我们重新制定了心理学研究方法的典型方法,以使不可避免的因果理论与其余的研究渠道协调。我们提出了一个新的过程,该过程始于从因果发现和机器学习的融合中纳入技术的发展,验证和透明的理论形式规范。然后,我们提出将完全指定的理论模型的复杂性降低到与给定目标假设相关的基本子模型中的方法。从这里,我们确定利息量是否可以从数据中估算出来,如果是的,则建议使用半参数机器学习方法来估计因果关系。总体目标是介绍新的研究管道,该管道可以(a)促进与测试因果理论的愿望兼容的科学询问(b)鼓励我们的理论透明代表作为明确的数学对象,(c)将我们的统计模型绑定到我们的统计模型中该理论的特定属性,因此减少了理论到模型间隙通常引起的规范不足问题,以及(d)产生因果关系和可重复性的结果和估计。通过具有现实世界数据的教学示例来证明该过程,我们以摘要和讨论来结论。
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负面对照是在存在未衡量混杂的情况下学习治疗与结果之间因果关系的策略。但是,如果有两个辅助变量可用:阴性对照治疗(对实际结果没有影响),并且可以确定治疗效果,并且可以识别出负面对照的结果(不受实际治疗的影响)。这些辅助变量也可以看作是一组传统控制变量的代理,并且与仪器变量相似。我提出了一种基于内核脊回归的算法系列,用于学习非参数治疗效果,并具有阴性对照。例子包括剂量反应曲线,具有分布转移的剂量反应曲线以及异质治疗效果。数据可能是离散的或连续的,并且低,高或无限的尺寸。我证明一致性均匀,并提供有限的收敛速率。我使用宾夕法尼亚州1989年至1991年之间在宾夕法尼亚州的单身人士出生的数据集对婴儿的出生体重进行了吸烟的剂量反应曲线,以调整未观察到的混杂因素。
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大型观察数据越来越多地提供健康,经济和社会科学等学科,研究人员对因果问题而不是预测感兴趣。在本文中,从旨在调查参与学校膳食计划对健康指标的实证研究,研究了使用非参数回归的方法估算异质治疗效果的问题。首先,我们介绍了与观察或非完全随机数据进行因果推断相关的设置和相关的问题,以及如何在统计学习工具的帮助下解决这些问题。然后,我们审查并制定现有最先进的框架的统一分类,允许通过非参数回归模型来估算单个治疗效果。在介绍模型选择问题的简要概述后,我们说明了一些关于三种不同模拟研究的方法的性能。我们通过展示一些关于学校膳食计划数据的实证分析的一些方法的使用来结束。
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发现新药是寻求并证明因果关系。作为一种新兴方法利用人类的知识和创造力,数据和机器智能,因果推论具有减少认知偏见并改善药物发现决策的希望。尽管它已经在整个价值链中应用了,但因子推理的概念和实践对许多从业者来说仍然晦涩难懂。本文提供了有关因果推理的非技术介绍,审查了其最新应用,并讨论了在药物发现和开发中采用因果语言的机会和挑战。
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Although understanding and characterizing causal effects have become essential in observational studies, it is challenging when the confounders are high-dimensional. In this article, we develop a general framework $\textit{CausalEGM}$ for estimating causal effects by encoding generative modeling, which can be applied in both binary and continuous treatment settings. Under the potential outcome framework with unconfoundedness, we establish a bidirectional transformation between the high-dimensional confounders space and a low-dimensional latent space where the density is known (e.g., multivariate normal distribution). Through this, CausalEGM simultaneously decouples the dependencies of confounders on both treatment and outcome and maps the confounders to the low-dimensional latent space. By conditioning on the low-dimensional latent features, CausalEGM can estimate the causal effect for each individual or the average causal effect within a population. Our theoretical analysis shows that the excess risk for CausalEGM can be bounded through empirical process theory. Under an assumption on encoder-decoder networks, the consistency of the estimate can be guaranteed. In a series of experiments, CausalEGM demonstrates superior performance over existing methods for both binary and continuous treatments. Specifically, we find CausalEGM to be substantially more powerful than competing methods in the presence of large sample sizes and high dimensional confounders. The software of CausalEGM is freely available at https://github.com/SUwonglab/CausalEGM.
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作为因果推断中的重要问题,我们讨论了治疗效果(TES)的估计。代表混淆器作为潜在的变量,我们提出了完整的VAE,这是一个变形AutoEncoder(VAE)的新变种,其具有足以识别TES的预后分数的动机。我们的VAE也自然地提供了使用其之前用于治疗组的陈述。(半)合成数据集的实验显示在各种环境下的最先进的性能,包括不观察到的混淆。基于我们模型的可识别性,我们在不协调下证明TES的识别,并讨论(可能)扩展到更难的设置。
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This invited review discusses causal learning in the context of robotic intelligence. The paper introduced the psychological findings on causal learning in human cognition, then it introduced the traditional statistical solutions on causal discovery and causal inference. The paper reviewed recent deep causal learning algorithms with a focus on their architectures and the benefits of using deep nets and discussed the gap between deep causal learning and the needs of robotic intelligence.
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观察数据中估算单个治疗效果(ITE)在许多领域,例如个性化医学等领域。但是,实际上,治疗分配通常被未观察到的变量混淆,因此引入了偏见。消除偏见的一种补救措施是使用仪器变量(IVS)。此类环境在医学中广泛存在(例如,将合规性用作二进制IV的试验)。在本文中,我们提出了一个新颖的,可靠的机器学习框架,称为MRIV,用于使用二进制IV估算ITES,从而产生无偏见的ITE估计器。与以前的二进制IV的工作不同,我们的框架通过伪结果回归直接估算了ITE。 (1)我们提供了一个理论分析,我们表明我们的框架产生了多重稳定的收敛速率:即使几个滋扰估计器的收敛缓慢,我们的ITE估计器也会达到快速收敛。 (2)我们进一步表明,我们的框架渐近地优于最先进的插件IV方法,以进行ITE估计。 (3)我们以理论结果为基础,并提出了一种使用二进制IVS的ITE估算的定制的,称为MRIV-NET的深度神经网络结构。在各种计算实验中,我们从经验上证明了我们的MRIV-NET实现最先进的性能。据我们所知,我们的MRIV是第一个机器学习框架,用于估算显示出倍增功能的二进制IV设置。
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因果效应估计对于自然和社会科学中的许多任务很重要。但是,如果没有做出强大的,通常无法测试的假设,就无法从观察数据中识别效果。我们考虑了部分识别问题的算法,当未衡量的混淆使鉴定不可能鉴定时,多变量,连续处理的界限治疗效果。我们考虑一个框架,即可观察的证据与基于规范标准在因果模型中编码的约束的含义相匹配。这纯粹是基于生成模型来概括经典方法。将因果关系施放为在受约束优化问题中的目标函数,我们将灵活的学习算法与蒙特卡洛方法相结合,以随机因果节目的名义实施解决方案家族。特别是,我们提出了可以通过因果或观察到的数据模型而没有可能性功能的参数功能的这种约束优化问题的方式,从而降低了任务的计算和统计复杂性。
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我们解决了在没有观察到的混杂的存在下的因果效应估计的问题,但是观察到潜在混杂因素的代理。在这种情况下,我们提出了两种基于内核的方法,用于非线性因果效应估计:(a)两阶段回归方法,以及(b)最大矩限制方法。我们专注于近端因果学习设置,但是我们的方法可以用来解决以弗雷霍尔姆积分方程为特征的更广泛的逆问题。特别是,我们提供了在非线性环境中解决此问题的两阶段和矩限制方法的统一视图。我们为每种算法提供一致性保证,并证明这些方法在合成数据和模拟现实世界任务的数据上获得竞争结果。特别是,我们的方法优于不适合利用代理变量的早期方法。
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数据科学任务可以被视为了解数据的感觉或测试关于它的假设。从数据推断的结论可以极大地指导我们做出信息做出决定。大数据使我们能够与机器学习结合执行无数的预测任务,例如鉴定患有某种疾病的高风险患者并采取可预防措施。然而,医疗保健从业者不仅仅是仅仅预测的内容 - 它们也对输入特征和临床结果之间的原因关系感兴趣。了解这些关系将有助于医生治疗患者并有效降低风险。通常通过随机对照试验鉴定因果关系。当科学家和研究人员转向观察研究并试图吸引推论时,这种试验通常是不可行的。然而,观察性研究也可能受到选择和/或混淆偏差的影响,这可能导致错误的因果结论。在本章中,我们将尝试突出传统机器学习和统计方法中可能出现的一些缺点,以分析观察数据,特别是在医疗保健数据分析域中。我们将讨论因果化推理和方法,以发现医疗领域的观测研究原因。此外,我们将展示因果推断在解决某些普通机器学习问题等中的应用,例如缺少数据和模型可运输性。最后,我们将讨论将加强学习与因果关系相结合的可能性,作为反击偏见的一种方式。
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We propose a new method to estimate causal effects from nonexperimental data. Each pair of sample units is first associated with a stochastic 'treatment' - differences in factors between units - and an effect - a resultant outcome difference. It is then proposed that all such pairs can be combined to provide more accurate estimates of causal effects in observational data, provided a statistical model connecting combinatorial properties of treatments to the accuracy and unbiasedness of their effects. The article introduces one such model and a Bayesian approach to combine the $O(n^2)$ pairwise observations typically available in nonexperimnetal data. This also leads to an interpretation of nonexperimental datasets as incomplete, or noisy, versions of ideal factorial experimental designs. This approach to causal effect estimation has several advantages: (1) it expands the number of observations, converting thousands of individuals into millions of observational treatments; (2) starting with treatments closest to the experimental ideal, it identifies noncausal variables that can be ignored in the future, making estimation easier in each subsequent iteration while departing minimally from experiment-like conditions; (3) it recovers individual causal effects in heterogeneous populations. We evaluate the method in simulations and the National Supported Work (NSW) program, an intensively studied program whose effects are known from randomized field experiments. We demonstrate that the proposed approach recovers causal effects in common NSW samples, as well as in arbitrary subpopulations and an order-of-magnitude larger supersample with the entire national program data, outperforming Statistical, Econometrics and Machine Learning estimators in all cases...
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