The Annals of Joseon Dynasty (AJD) contain the daily records of the Kings of Joseon, the 500-year kingdom preceding the modern nation of Korea. The Annals were originally written in an archaic Korean writing system, `Hanja', and were translated into Korean from 1968 to 1993. The resulting translation was however too literal and contained many archaic Korean words; thus, a new expert translation effort began in 2012. Since then, the records of only one king have been completed in a decade. In parallel, expert translators are working on English translation, also at a slow pace and produced only one king's records in English so far. Thus, we propose H2KE, a neural machine translation model, that translates historical documents in Hanja to more easily understandable Korean and to English. Built on top of multilingual neural machine translation, H2KE learns to translate a historical document written in Hanja, from both a full dataset of outdated Korean translation and a small dataset of more recently translated contemporary Korean and English. We compare our method against two baselines: a recent model that simultaneously learns to restore and translate Hanja historical document and a Transformer based model trained only on newly translated corpora. The experiments reveal that our method significantly outperforms the baselines in terms of BLEU scores for both contemporary Korean and English translations. We further conduct extensive human evaluation which shows that our translation is preferred over the original expert translations by both experts and non-expert Korean speakers.

机器翻译系统（MTS）是通过将文本或语音从一种语言转换为另一种语言的有效工具。在像印度这样的大型多语言环境中，对有效的翻译系统的需求变得显而易见，英语和一套印度语言（ILS）正式使用。与英语相反，由于语料库的不可用，IL仍然被视为低资源语言。为了解决不对称性质，多语言神经机器翻译（MNMT）系统会发展为在这个方向上的理想方法。在本文中，我们提出了一个MNMT系统，以解决与低资源语言翻译有关的问题。我们的模型包括两个MNMT系统，即用于英语印度（一对多），另一个用于指示英语（多一对多），其中包含15个语言对（30个翻译说明）的共享编码器码头。由于大多数IL对具有很少的平行语料库，因此不足以训练任何机器翻译模型。我们探索各种增强策略，以通过建议的模型提高整体翻译质量。最先进的变压器体系结构用于实现所提出的模型。大量数据的试验揭示了其优越性比常规模型的优势。此外，本文解决了语言关系的使用（在方言，脚本等方面），尤其是关于同一家族的高资源语言在提高低资源语言表现方面的作用。此外，实验结果还表明了ILS的倒退和域适应性的优势，以提高源和目标语言的翻译质量。使用所有这些关键方法，我们提出的模型在评估指标方面比基线模型更有效，即一组ILS的BLEU（双语评估研究）得分。

我们介绍了第一个用于濒危Erzya语言与俄语以及我们为训练和评估它收集的数据集的神经机器翻译系统。BLEU分别分别为Erzya和Russian的BLEU分数分别为17和19，其中一半以上的翻译被以母语为母语的人可以接受。我们还调整了模型以在Erzya和其他10种语言之间转换，但是如果没有其他并行数据，这些方向上的质量仍然很低。我们将翻译模型与收集的文本语料库一起发布，新的语言标识模型以及适合Erzya语言的多语言句子编码器。这些资源将在https://github.com/slone-nlp/myv-nmt上找到。

神经机器翻译（NMT）模型在大型双语数据集上已有效。但是，现有的方法和技术表明，该模型的性能高度取决于培训数据中的示例数量。对于许多语言而言，拥有如此数量的语料库是一个牵强的梦想。我们从单语言词典探索新语言的单语扬声器中汲取灵感，我们研究了双语词典对具有极低或双语语料库的语言的适用性。在本文中，我们使用具有NMT模型的双语词典探索方法，以改善资源极低的资源语言的翻译。我们将此工作扩展到多语言系统，表现出零拍的属性。我们详细介绍了字典质量，培训数据集大小，语言家族等对翻译质量的影响。多种低资源测试语言的结果表明，我们的双语词典方法比基线相比。

我们介绍Samanantar，是最大的公开可用的并行Corpora Collection，用于指示语言。该集合中的英语和11个上线语言之间总共包含4970万句对（来自两种语言系列）。具体而言，我们从现有的公共可用并行基层编译1240万句对，另外，从网络上挖掘3740万句对，导致4倍增加。我们通过组合许多语料库，工具和方法来挖掘网站的并行句子：（a）Web爬行单格式语料库，（b）文档OCR，用于从扫描的文档中提取句子，（c）用于对齐句子的多语言表示模型，以及（d）近似最近的邻居搜索搜索大量句子。人类评估新矿业的Corpora的样本验证了11种语言的高质量平行句子。此外，我们使用英语作为枢轴语言，从英式并行语料库中提取所有55个指示语言对之间的834百万句子对。我们培训了跨越Samanantar上所有这些语言的多语种NMT模型，这在公开可用的基准上表现出现有的模型和基准，例如弗洛雷斯，建立萨曼塔尔的效用。我们的数据和模型可在Https://indicnlp.ai4bharat.org/samanantar/上公开提供，我们希望他们能够帮助推进NMT和Multibingual NLP的研究。

估计机器翻译系统的质量是该领域的研究人员的持续挑战。许多以前使用往返翻译的尝试作为质量的衡量标准失败，并且对其是一种可行的质量估算方法有很大的分歧。在本文中，我们重新审视了往返翻译，提出了一个旨在解决这种方法发现的先前陷阱的系统。我们的方法利用近期语言表示的进步学习，以更准确地衡量原始和往返翻译句子之间的相似性。实验表明，虽然我们的方法没有达到现有技术的当前状态的性能，但它仍然可能是某些语言对的有效方法。

Machine Translation (MT) system generally aims at automatic representation of source language into target language retaining the originality of context using various Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques. Among various NLP methods, Statistical Machine Translation(SMT). SMT uses probabilistic and statistical techniques to analyze information and conversion. This paper canvasses about the development of bilingual SMT models for translating English to fifteen low-resource Indian Languages (ILs) and vice versa. At the outset, all 15 languages are briefed with a short description related to our experimental need. Further, a detailed analysis of Samanantar and OPUS dataset for model building, along with standard benchmark dataset (Flores-200) for fine-tuning and testing, is done as a part of our experiment. Different preprocessing approaches are proposed in this paper to handle the noise of the dataset. To create the system, MOSES open-source SMT toolkit is explored. Distance reordering is utilized with the aim to understand the rules of grammar and context-dependent adjustments through a phrase reordering categorization framework. In our experiment, the quality of the translation is evaluated using standard metrics such as BLEU, METEOR, and RIBES

We propose a simple solution to use a single Neural Machine Translation (NMT) model to translate between multiple languages. Our solution requires no changes to the model architecture from a standard NMT system but instead introduces an artificial token at the beginning of the input sentence to specify the required target language. The rest of the model, which includes an encoder, decoder and attention module, remains unchanged and is shared across all languages. Using a shared wordpiece vocabulary, our approach enables Multilingual NMT using a single model without any increase in parameters, which is significantly simpler than previous proposals for Multilingual NMT. On the WMT'14 benchmarks, a single multilingual model achieves comparable performance for English→French and surpasses state-of-the-art results for English→German. Similarly, a single multilingual model surpasses state-of-the-art results for French→English and German→English on WMT'14 and WMT'15 benchmarks, respectively. On production corpora, multilingual models of up to twelve language pairs allow for better translation of many individual pairs. In addition to improving the translation quality of language pairs that the model was trained with, our models can also learn to perform implicit bridging between language pairs never seen explicitly during training, showing that transfer learning and zero-shot translation is possible for neural translation. Finally, we show analyses that hints at a universal interlingua representation in our models and show some interesting examples when mixing languages.

神经机器翻译（NMT）是一个开放的词汇问题。结果，处理在培训期间没有出现的单词（又称唱歌外（OOV）单词）长期以来一直是NMT系统的基本挑战。解决此问题的主要方法是字节对编码（BPE），将包括OOV单词在内的单词分为子字段中。在自动评估指标方面，BPE为广泛的翻译任务取得了令人印象深刻的结果。尽管通常假定使用BPE，但NMT系统能够处理OOV单词，但BPE在翻译OOV单词中的有效性尚未明确测量。在本文中，我们研究了BPE在多大程度上成功地翻译了单词级别的OOV单词。我们根据单词类型，段数，交叉注意权重和训练数据中段NGram的段频率分析OOV单词的翻译质量。我们的实验表明，尽管仔细的BPE设置似乎在整个数据集中翻译OOV单词时相当有用，但很大一部分的OOV单词被错误地翻译而成。此外，我们强调了BPE在为特殊案例（例如命名本性和涉及的语言彼此接近的语言）翻译OOV单词中的有效性稍高。

In this work, we introduce IndicXTREME, a benchmark consisting of nine diverse tasks covering 18 languages from the Indic sub-continent belonging to four different families. Across languages and tasks, IndicXTREME contains a total of 103 evaluation sets, of which 51 are new contributions to the literature. To maintain high quality, we only use human annotators to curate or translate\footnote{for IndicXParaphrase, where an automatic translation system is used, a second human verification and correction step is done.} our datasets. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first effort toward creating a standard benchmark for Indic languages that aims to test the zero-shot capabilities of pretrained language models. We also release IndicCorp v2, an updated and much larger version of IndicCorp that contains 20.9 billion tokens in 24 languages. We pretrain IndicBERT v2 on IndicCorp v2 and evaluate it on IndicXTREME to show that it outperforms existing multilingual language models such as XLM-R and MuRIL.

The machine translation mechanism translates texts automatically between different natural languages, and Neural Machine Translation (NMT) has gained attention for its rational context analysis and fluent translation accuracy. However, processing low-resource languages that lack relevant training attributes like supervised data is a current challenge for Natural Language Processing (NLP). We incorporated a technique known Active Learning with the NMT toolkit Joey NMT to reach sufficient accuracy and robust predictions of low-resource language translation. With active learning, a semi-supervised machine learning strategy, the training algorithm determines which unlabeled data would be the most beneficial for obtaining labels using selected query techniques. We implemented two model-driven acquisition functions for selecting the samples to be validated. This work uses transformer-based NMT systems; baseline model (BM), fully trained model (FTM) , active learning least confidence based model (ALLCM), and active learning margin sampling based model (ALMSM) when translating English to Hindi. The Bilingual Evaluation Understudy (BLEU) metric has been used to evaluate system results. The BLEU scores of BM, FTM, ALLCM and ALMSM systems are 16.26, 22.56 , 24.54, and 24.20, respectively. The findings in this paper demonstrate that active learning techniques helps the model to converge early and improve the overall quality of the translation system.

在本文中，我们分享了我们努力建立能够翻译一千多种语言的实用机器翻译（MT）系统的发现。我们在三个研究领域中描述了结果：（i）通过利用半监督预训练的语言识别和开发数据驱动的过滤技术来构建1500多种语言的清洁，网挖数据集； （ii）通过利用大规模的多语言模型来开发用于服务不足的语言的实用MT模型，该模型训练了有监督的并行数据，以使用100多种高资源语言和单语言数据集，以增加1000多种语言； （iii）研究这些语言的评估指标的局限性，并对我们MT模型的输出进行定性分析，突出显示了这些类型模型的几种频繁误差模式。我们希望我们的工作为旨在为当前研究的语言构建MT系统的从业者提供有用的见解，并突出显示可以补充Data-Sparse设置中大量多语言模型的弱点的研究方向。

基于变压器的模型的出现，机器翻译已经快速发展。这些模型没有内置的明确的语言结构，但是它们仍然可以通过参与相关令牌隐式学习结构化的关系。我们假设通过明确赋予变形金刚具有结构性偏见，可以使这种结构学习变得更加健壮，我们研究了两种在这种偏见中构建的方法。一种方法，即TP变换器，可以增强传统的变压器体系结构，包括代表结构的附加组件。第二种方法通过将数据分割为形态令牌化来灌输数据级别的结构。我们测试了这些方法从英语翻译成土耳其语和Inuktitut的形态丰富的语言，并考虑自动指标和人类评估。我们发现，这两种方法中每种方法都允许网络实现更好的性能，但是此改进取决于数据集的大小。总而言之，结构编码方法使变压器更具样本效率，从而使它们能够从少量数据中表现得更好。

在本文中，我们介绍了一个高质量的大规模基准数据集，用于英语 - 越南语音翻译，其中有508音频小时，由331k的三胞胎组成（句子长度的音频，英语源笔录句，越南人目标subtitle句子）。我们还使用强基础进行了经验实验，发现传统的“级联”方法仍然优于现代“端到端”方法。据我们所知，这是第一个大规模的英语 - 越南语音翻译研究。我们希望我们的公开数据集和研究都可以作为未来研究和英语语音翻译应用的起点。我们的数据集可从https://github.com/vinairesearch/phost获得

关于阿塞拜疆的神经机器翻译（NMT）的研究很少。在本文中，我们将阿塞拜疆 - 英语NMT系统的性能基于一系列技术和数据集的性能。我们评估哪种细分技术在阿塞拜疆翻译上最有效，并基准了阿塞拜疆NMT模型在几个文本领域中的性能。我们的结果表明，虽然Umigram细分改善了NMT的性能，而Azerbaijani翻译模型则比数量更好，但跨域泛化仍然是一个挑战

State-of-the-art natural language processing systems rely on supervision in the form of annotated data to learn competent models. These models are generally trained on data in a single language (usually English), and cannot be directly used beyond that language. Since collecting data in every language is not realistic, there has been a growing interest in crosslingual language understanding (XLU) and low-resource cross-language transfer. In this work, we construct an evaluation set for XLU by extending the development and test sets of the Multi-Genre Natural Language Inference Corpus (MultiNLI) to 15 languages, including low-resource languages such as Swahili and Urdu. We hope that our dataset, dubbed XNLI, will catalyze research in cross-lingual sentence understanding by providing an informative standard evaluation task. In addition, we provide several baselines for multilingual sentence understanding, including two based on machine translation systems, and two that use parallel data to train aligned multilingual bag-of-words and LSTM encoders. We find that XNLI represents a practical and challenging evaluation suite, and that directly translating the test data yields the best performance among available baselines.

机器翻译（MT）的单词级质量估计（QE）旨在在不参考的情况下找出翻译句子中的潜在翻译错误。通常，关于文字级别量化宽松的传统作品旨在根据文章编辑工作来预测翻译质量，其中通过比较MT句子之间的单词来自动生成单词标签（“ OK”和“ BAD”）。通过翻译错误率（TER）工具包编辑的句子。虽然可以使用后编辑的工作来在一定程度上测量翻译质量，但我们发现它通常与人类对单词是否良好或翻译不良的判断相抵触。为了克服限制，我们首先创建了一个金色基准数据集，即\ emph {hjqe}（人类对质量估计的判断），专家翻译直接注释了对其判断的不良翻译单词。此外，为了进一步利用平行语料库，我们提出了使用两个标签校正策略的自我监督的预训练，即标记改进策略和基于树的注释策略，以使基于TER的人工量化量子ceper更接近\ emph {HJQE}。我们根据公开可用的WMT en-de和en-ZH Corpora进行实质性实验。结果不仅表明我们提出的数据集与人类的判断更加一致，而且还确认了提议的标签纠正策略的有效性。 。}

Pre-training is an effective technique for ensuring robust performance on a variety of machine learning tasks. It typically depends on large-scale crawled corpora that can result in toxic or biased models. Such data can also be problematic with respect to copyright, attribution, and privacy. Pre-training with synthetic tasks and data is a promising way of alleviating such concerns since no real-world information is ingested by the model. Our goal in this paper is to understand what makes for a good pre-trained model when using synthetic resources. We answer this question in the context of neural machine translation by considering two novel approaches to translation model pre-training. Our first approach studies the effect of pre-training on obfuscated data derived from a parallel corpus by mapping words to a vocabulary of 'nonsense' tokens. Our second approach explores the effect of pre-training on procedurally generated synthetic parallel data that does not depend on any real human language corpus. Our empirical evaluation on multiple language pairs shows that, to a surprising degree, the benefits of pre-training can be realized even with obfuscated or purely synthetic parallel data. In our analysis, we consider the extent to which obfuscated and synthetic pre-training techniques can be used to mitigate the issue of hallucinated model toxicity.

The rapid growth of machine translation (MT) systems has necessitated comprehensive studies to meta-evaluate evaluation metrics being used, which enables a better selection of metrics that best reflect MT quality. Unfortunately, most of the research focuses on high-resource languages, mainly English, the observations for which may not always apply to other languages. Indian languages, having over a billion speakers, are linguistically different from English, and to date, there has not been a systematic study of evaluating MT systems from English into Indian languages. In this paper, we fill this gap by creating an MQM dataset consisting of 7000 fine-grained annotations, spanning 5 Indian languages and 7 MT systems, and use it to establish correlations between annotator scores and scores obtained using existing automatic metrics. Our results show that pre-trained metrics, such as COMET, have the highest correlations with annotator scores. Additionally, we find that the metrics do not adequately capture fluency-based errors in Indian languages, and there is a need to develop metrics focused on Indian languages. We hope that our dataset and analysis will help promote further research in this area.

Video dubbing aims to translate the original speech in a film or television program into the speech in a target language, which can be achieved with a cascaded system consisting of speech recognition, machine translation and speech synthesis. To ensure the translated speech to be well aligned with the corresponding video, the length/duration of the translated speech should be as close as possible to that of the original speech, which requires strict length control. Previous works usually control the number of words or characters generated by the machine translation model to be similar to the source sentence, without considering the isochronicity of speech as the speech duration of words/characters in different languages varies. In this paper, we propose a machine translation system tailored for the task of video dubbing, which directly considers the speech duration of each token in translation, to match the length of source and target speech. Specifically, we control the speech length of generated sentence by guiding the prediction of each word with the duration information, including the speech duration of itself as well as how much duration is left for the remaining words. We design experiments on four language directions (German -> English, Spanish -> English, Chinese <-> English), and the results show that the proposed method achieves better length control ability on the generated speech than baseline methods. To make up the lack of real-world datasets, we also construct a real-world test set collected from films to provide comprehensive evaluations on the video dubbing task.