神经机器翻译（NMT）是一个开放的词汇问题。结果，处理在培训期间没有出现的单词（又称唱歌外（OOV）单词）长期以来一直是NMT系统的基本挑战。解决此问题的主要方法是字节对编码（BPE），将包括OOV单词在内的单词分为子字段中。在自动评估指标方面，BPE为广泛的翻译任务取得了令人印象深刻的结果。尽管通常假定使用BPE，但NMT系统能够处理OOV单词，但BPE在翻译OOV单词中的有效性尚未明确测量。在本文中，我们研究了BPE在多大程度上成功地翻译了单词级别的OOV单词。我们根据单词类型，段数，交叉注意权重和训练数据中段NGram的段频率分析OOV单词的翻译质量。我们的实验表明，尽管仔细的BPE设置似乎在整个数据集中翻译OOV单词时相当有用，但很大一部分的OOV单词被错误地翻译而成。此外，我们强调了BPE在为特殊案例（例如命名本性和涉及的语言彼此接近的语言）翻译OOV单词中的有效性稍高。

Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach, making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word segmentation techniques, including simple character ngram models and a segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English→German and English→Russian by up to 1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.

神经机器翻译（NMT）模型在大型双语数据集上已有效。但是，现有的方法和技术表明，该模型的性能高度取决于培训数据中的示例数量。对于许多语言而言，拥有如此数量的语料库是一个牵强的梦想。我们从单语言词典探索新语言的单语扬声器中汲取灵感，我们研究了双语词典对具有极低或双语语料库的语言的适用性。在本文中，我们使用具有NMT模型的双语词典探索方法，以改善资源极低的资源语言的翻译。我们将此工作扩展到多语言系统，表现出零拍的属性。我们详细介绍了字典质量，培训数据集大小，语言家族等对翻译质量的影响。多种低资源测试语言的结果表明，我们的双语词典方法比基线相比。

The Annals of Joseon Dynasty (AJD) contain the daily records of the Kings of Joseon, the 500-year kingdom preceding the modern nation of Korea. The Annals were originally written in an archaic Korean writing system, `Hanja', and were translated into Korean from 1968 to 1993. The resulting translation was however too literal and contained many archaic Korean words; thus, a new expert translation effort began in 2012. Since then, the records of only one king have been completed in a decade. In parallel, expert translators are working on English translation, also at a slow pace and produced only one king's records in English so far. Thus, we propose H2KE, a neural machine translation model, that translates historical documents in Hanja to more easily understandable Korean and to English. Built on top of multilingual neural machine translation, H2KE learns to translate a historical document written in Hanja, from both a full dataset of outdated Korean translation and a small dataset of more recently translated contemporary Korean and English. We compare our method against two baselines: a recent model that simultaneously learns to restore and translate Hanja historical document and a Transformer based model trained only on newly translated corpora. The experiments reveal that our method significantly outperforms the baselines in terms of BLEU scores for both contemporary Korean and English translations. We further conduct extensive human evaluation which shows that our translation is preferred over the original expert translations by both experts and non-expert Korean speakers.

关于阿塞拜疆的神经机器翻译（NMT）的研究很少。在本文中，我们将阿塞拜疆 - 英语NMT系统的性能基于一系列技术和数据集的性能。我们评估哪种细分技术在阿塞拜疆翻译上最有效，并基准了阿塞拜疆NMT模型在几个文本领域中的性能。我们的结果表明，虽然Umigram细分改善了NMT的性能，而Azerbaijani翻译模型则比数量更好，但跨域泛化仍然是一个挑战

基于变压器的模型的出现，机器翻译已经快速发展。这些模型没有内置的明确的语言结构，但是它们仍然可以通过参与相关令牌隐式学习结构化的关系。我们假设通过明确赋予变形金刚具有结构性偏见，可以使这种结构学习变得更加健壮，我们研究了两种在这种偏见中构建的方法。一种方法，即TP变换器，可以增强传统的变压器体系结构，包括代表结构的附加组件。第二种方法通过将数据分割为形态令牌化来灌输数据级别的结构。我们测试了这些方法从英语翻译成土耳其语和Inuktitut的形态丰富的语言，并考虑自动指标和人类评估。我们发现，这两种方法中每种方法都允许网络实现更好的性能，但是此改进取决于数据集的大小。总而言之，结构编码方法使变压器更具样本效率，从而使它们能够从少量数据中表现得更好。

估计机器翻译系统的质量是该领域的研究人员的持续挑战。许多以前使用往返翻译的尝试作为质量的衡量标准失败，并且对其是一种可行的质量估算方法有很大的分歧。在本文中，我们重新审视了往返翻译，提出了一个旨在解决这种方法发现的先前陷阱的系统。我们的方法利用近期语言表示的进步学习，以更准确地衡量原始和往返翻译句子之间的相似性。实验表明，虽然我们的方法没有达到现有技术的当前状态的性能，但它仍然可能是某些语言对的有效方法。

机器翻译系统（MTS）是通过将文本或语音从一种语言转换为另一种语言的有效工具。在像印度这样的大型多语言环境中，对有效的翻译系统的需求变得显而易见，英语和一套印度语言（ILS）正式使用。与英语相反，由于语料库的不可用，IL仍然被视为低资源语言。为了解决不对称性质，多语言神经机器翻译（MNMT）系统会发展为在这个方向上的理想方法。在本文中，我们提出了一个MNMT系统，以解决与低资源语言翻译有关的问题。我们的模型包括两个MNMT系统，即用于英语印度（一对多），另一个用于指示英语（多一对多），其中包含15个语言对（30个翻译说明）的共享编码器码头。由于大多数IL对具有很少的平行语料库，因此不足以训练任何机器翻译模型。我们探索各种增强策略，以通过建议的模型提高整体翻译质量。最先进的变压器体系结构用于实现所提出的模型。大量数据的试验揭示了其优越性比常规模型的优势。此外，本文解决了语言关系的使用（在方言，脚本等方面），尤其是关于同一家族的高资源语言在提高低资源语言表现方面的作用。此外，实验结果还表明了ILS的倒退和域适应性的优势，以提高源和目标语言的翻译质量。使用所有这些关键方法，我们提出的模型在评估指标方面比基线模型更有效，即一组ILS的BLEU（双语评估研究）得分。

已经表明，机器翻译模型通常在培训语料库中不常见的命名实体产生不良的翻译。早期命名实体翻译方法主要关注语音音译，忽略翻译中的句子上下文，并在域和语言覆盖范围内有限。为了解决这一限制，我们提出了深入的，一种去噪的实体预训练方法，它利用大量单机数据和知识库来改进句子中的命名实体转换准确性。此外，我们调查了一种多任务学习策略，使得在实体增强的单晶体数据和并行数据上FineTunes在实体上的训练有素的神经机器翻译模型中进一步改进实体翻译。三种语言对的实验结果表明，方法导致强大的脱景自动编码基线的显着改进，增益高达1.3 BLEU，高达9.2的英语翻译实体准确度。

神经指标与机器翻译系统评估中的人类判断达到了令人印象深刻的相关性，但是在我们可以安全地针对此类指标进行优化之前，我们应该意识到（并且理想地消除）偏向获得高分的不良翻译的偏见。我们的实验表明，基于样本的最小贝叶斯风险解码可用于探索和量化此类弱点。在将此策略应用于彗星进行ende和de-en时，我们发现彗星模型不足以差异和命名实体差异。我们进一步表明，通过简单地培训其他合成数据并发布我们的代码和数据以促进进一步的实验，这些偏见很难完全消除。

Data scarcity is one of the main issues with the end-to-end approach for Speech Translation, as compared to the cascaded one. Although most data resources for Speech Translation are originally document-level, they offer a sentence-level view, which can be directly used during training. But this sentence-level view is single and static, potentially limiting the utility of the data. Our proposed data augmentation method SegAugment challenges this idea and aims to increase data availability by providing multiple alternative sentence-level views of a dataset. Our method heavily relies on an Audio Segmentation system to re-segment the speech of each document, after which we obtain the target text with alignment methods. The Audio Segmentation system can be parameterized with different length constraints, thus giving us access to multiple and diverse sentence-level views for each document. Experiments in MuST-C show consistent gains across 8 language pairs, with an average increase of 2.2 BLEU points, and up to 4.7 BLEU for lower-resource scenarios in mTEDx. Additionally, we find that SegAugment is also applicable to purely sentence-level data, as in CoVoST, and that it enables Speech Translation models to completely close the gap between the gold and automatic segmentation at inference time.

As machine translation (MT) metrics improve their correlation with human judgement every year, it is crucial to understand the limitations of such metrics at the segment level. Specifically, it is important to investigate metric behaviour when facing accuracy errors in MT because these can have dangerous consequences in certain contexts (e.g., legal, medical). We curate ACES, a translation accuracy challenge set, consisting of 68 phenomena ranging from simple perturbations at the word/character level to more complex errors based on discourse and real-world knowledge. We use ACES to evaluate a wide range of MT metrics including the submissions to the WMT 2022 metrics shared task and perform several analyses leading to general recommendations for metric developers. We recommend: a) combining metrics with different strengths, b) developing metrics that give more weight to the source and less to surface-level overlap with the reference and c) explicitly modelling additional language-specific information beyond what is available via multilingual embeddings.

The rapid growth of machine translation (MT) systems has necessitated comprehensive studies to meta-evaluate evaluation metrics being used, which enables a better selection of metrics that best reflect MT quality. Unfortunately, most of the research focuses on high-resource languages, mainly English, the observations for which may not always apply to other languages. Indian languages, having over a billion speakers, are linguistically different from English, and to date, there has not been a systematic study of evaluating MT systems from English into Indian languages. In this paper, we fill this gap by creating an MQM dataset consisting of 7000 fine-grained annotations, spanning 5 Indian languages and 7 MT systems, and use it to establish correlations between annotator scores and scores obtained using existing automatic metrics. Our results show that pre-trained metrics, such as COMET, have the highest correlations with annotator scores. Additionally, we find that the metrics do not adequately capture fluency-based errors in Indian languages, and there is a need to develop metrics focused on Indian languages. We hope that our dataset and analysis will help promote further research in this area.

Recently, very large pre-trained models achieve state-of-the-art results in various natural language processing (NLP) tasks, but their size makes it more challenging to apply them in resource-constrained environments. Compression techniques allow to drastically reduce the size of the models and therefore their inference time with negligible impact on top-tier metrics. However, the general performance averaged across multiple tasks and/or languages may hide a drastic performance drop on under-represented features, which could result in the amplification of biases encoded by the models. In this work, we assess the impact of compression methods on Multilingual Neural Machine Translation models (MNMT) for various language groups, gender, and semantic biases by extensive analysis of compressed models on different machine translation benchmarks, i.e. FLORES-101, MT-Gender, and DiBiMT. We show that the performance of under-represented languages drops significantly, while the average BLEU metric only slightly decreases. Interestingly, the removal of noisy memorization with compression leads to a significant improvement for some medium-resource languages. Finally, we demonstrate that compression amplifies intrinsic gender and semantic biases, even in high-resource languages. Code: https://github.com/alirezamshi/bias-compressedMT

多语言代币器是多语言神经机器翻译的基本组成部分。它是通过多语种语料库训练的。由于偏斜的数据分布被认为是有害的，因此通常使用采样策略来平衡语料库中的语言。但是，很少有作品系统地回答了令牌训练中的语言失衡如何影响下游的表现。在这项工作中，我们分析了翻译性能如何随着语言之间的数据比率而变化，而在令牌培训语料库中的变化。我们发现，虽然当语言更加同样地采样时，通常会观察到相对较好的性能，但下游性能对语言不平衡的性能比我们通常预期的要强。在执行任务之前，可以警告两个功能，即UNK速率和接近角色水平，可以警告下游性能不佳。我们还将令牌训练的语言抽样与模型培训的采样分开，并表明该模型对后者更敏感。

MINED BITEXTS可以包含不完美的翻译，从而产生神经机翻译（NMT）的不可靠的训练信号。在已知过滤这样的对以提高最终模型质量的情况下，我们认为它在低资源条件下是次优的，甚至开采数据可以限制。在我们的工作中，我们提出了通过自动编辑来改进挖掘的BIESTS：给出语言XF中的句子，而且可能是IT XE的不完美翻译，我们的模型生成了一个修订的版本XF'或XE'，产生更等值翻译对（即<XF，XE'或<XF'，XE>）。我们使用一个简单的编辑策略（1）挖掘在给定的BITExt中的每个句子的潜在不完美的翻译，（2）学习一个模型来重建原始翻译并以多任务方式翻译。实验表明，我们的方法在大多数情况下，在大多数情况下，我们的方法成功地提高了5个低资源语言对和10个翻译方向，在大多数情况下改善了竞争反播基线。

这项工作适用于最低贝叶斯风险（MBR）解码，以优化翻译质量的各种自动化指标。机器翻译中的自动指标最近取得了巨大的进步。特别是，在人类评级（例如BLEurt，或Comet）上微调，在与人类判断的相关性方面是优于表面度量的微调。我们的实验表明，神经翻译模型与神经基于基于神经参考度量，BLEURT的组合导致自动和人类评估的显着改善。通过与经典光束搜索输出不同的翻译获得该改进：这些翻译的可能性较低，并且较少受到Bleu等表面度量的青睐。

We propose a simple solution to use a single Neural Machine Translation (NMT) model to translate between multiple languages. Our solution requires no changes to the model architecture from a standard NMT system but instead introduces an artificial token at the beginning of the input sentence to specify the required target language. The rest of the model, which includes an encoder, decoder and attention module, remains unchanged and is shared across all languages. Using a shared wordpiece vocabulary, our approach enables Multilingual NMT using a single model without any increase in parameters, which is significantly simpler than previous proposals for Multilingual NMT. On the WMT'14 benchmarks, a single multilingual model achieves comparable performance for English→French and surpasses state-of-the-art results for English→German. Similarly, a single multilingual model surpasses state-of-the-art results for French→English and German→English on WMT'14 and WMT'15 benchmarks, respectively. On production corpora, multilingual models of up to twelve language pairs allow for better translation of many individual pairs. In addition to improving the translation quality of language pairs that the model was trained with, our models can also learn to perform implicit bridging between language pairs never seen explicitly during training, showing that transfer learning and zero-shot translation is possible for neural translation. Finally, we show analyses that hints at a universal interlingua representation in our models and show some interesting examples when mixing languages.

Large language models (LLMs) that have been trained on multilingual but not parallel text exhibit a remarkable ability to translate between languages. We probe this ability in an in-depth study of the pathways language model (PaLM), which has demonstrated the strongest machine translation (MT) performance among similarly-trained LLMs to date. We investigate various strategies for choosing translation examples for few-shot prompting, concluding that example quality is the most important factor. Using optimized prompts, we revisit previous assessments of PaLM's MT capabilities with more recent test sets, modern MT metrics, and human evaluation, and find that its performance, while impressive, still lags that of state-of-the-art supervised systems. We conclude by providing an analysis of PaLM's MT output which reveals some interesting properties and prospects for future work.

Pre-training is an effective technique for ensuring robust performance on a variety of machine learning tasks. It typically depends on large-scale crawled corpora that can result in toxic or biased models. Such data can also be problematic with respect to copyright, attribution, and privacy. Pre-training with synthetic tasks and data is a promising way of alleviating such concerns since no real-world information is ingested by the model. Our goal in this paper is to understand what makes for a good pre-trained model when using synthetic resources. We answer this question in the context of neural machine translation by considering two novel approaches to translation model pre-training. Our first approach studies the effect of pre-training on obfuscated data derived from a parallel corpus by mapping words to a vocabulary of 'nonsense' tokens. Our second approach explores the effect of pre-training on procedurally generated synthetic parallel data that does not depend on any real human language corpus. Our empirical evaluation on multiple language pairs shows that, to a surprising degree, the benefits of pre-training can be realized even with obfuscated or purely synthetic parallel data. In our analysis, we consider the extent to which obfuscated and synthetic pre-training techniques can be used to mitigate the issue of hallucinated model toxicity.