Causal learning is the key to obtaining stable predictions and answering \textit{what if} problems in decision-makings. In causal learning, it is central to seek methods to estimate the average treatment effect (ATE) from observational data. The Double/Debiased Machine Learning (DML) is one of the prevalent methods to estimate ATE. However, the DML estimators can suffer from an \textit{error-compounding issue} and even give extreme estimates when the propensity scores are close to 0 or 1. Previous studies have overcome this issue through some empirical tricks such as propensity score trimming, yet none of the existing works solves it from a theoretical standpoint. In this paper, we propose a \textit{Robust Causal Learning (RCL)} method to offset the deficiencies of DML estimators. Theoretically, the RCL estimators i) satisfy the (higher-order) orthogonal condition and are as \textit{consistent and doubly robust} as the DML estimators, and ii) get rid of the error-compounding issue. Empirically, the comprehensive experiments show that: i) the RCL estimators give more stable estimations of the causal parameters than DML; ii) the RCL estimators outperform traditional estimators and their variants when applying different machine learning models on both simulation and benchmark datasets, and a mimic consumer credit dataset generated by WGAN.
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经济学和医疗保健方面的许多实际决策问题寻求从观察数据中估算平均治疗效果(ATE)。双重/辩护的机器学习(DML)是观察性研究中估计吃量的普遍方法之一。但是,DML估计器可能会遇到错误的问题,甚至在倾向分数被弄错或非常接近0或1时进行极端估计。现有文献从理论的角度解决了这个问题。在本文中,我们提出了一种健壮的因果学习(RCL)方法,以抵消DML估计量的缺陷。从理论上讲,RCL估计量i)与DML估计器一样一致且双重稳健,ii)可以摆脱错误混合问题。从经验上讲,全面的实验表明,i)RCL估计器比DML估计器给出了因果参数的稳定估计,ii)RCL估计器在模拟和基准标准数据集上应用不同的机器学习模型时,RCL估计器优于传统估计器及其变体。 。
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由于选择偏差,观察数据估算平均治疗效果(ATE)是有挑战性的。现有作品主要以两种方式应对这一挑战。一些研究人员建议构建满足正交条件的分数函数,该函数确保已建立的估计量“正交”更加健壮。其他人探索表示模型,以实现治疗组和受控群体之间的平衡表示。但是,现有研究未能进行1)在表示空间中歧视受控单元以避免过度平衡的问题; 2)充分利用“正交信息”。在本文中,我们提出了一个基于最新协变量平衡表示方法和正交机器学习理论的中等平衡的表示学习(MBRL)框架。该框架可保护表示形式免于通过多任务学习过度平衡。同时,MBRL将噪声正交性信息纳入培训和验证阶段,以实现更好的ATE估计。与现有的最新方法相比,基准和模拟数据集的全面实验表明,我们方法对治疗效应估计的优越性和鲁棒性。
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In many investigations, the primary outcome of interest is difficult or expensive to collect. Examples include long-term health effects of medical interventions, measurements requiring expensive testing or follow-up, and outcomes only measurable on small panels as in marketing. This reduces effective sample sizes for estimating the average treatment effect (ATE). However, there is often an abundance of observations on surrogate outcomes not of primary interest, such as short-term health effects or online-ad click-through. We study the role of such surrogate observations in the efficient estimation of treatment effects. To quantify their value, we derive the semiparametric efficiency bounds on ATE estimation with and without the presence of surrogates and several intermediary settings. The difference between these characterizes the efficiency gains from optimally leveraging surrogates. We study two regimes: when the number of surrogate observations is comparable to primary-outcome observations and when the former dominates the latter. We take an agnostic missing-data approach circumventing strong surrogate conditions previously assumed. To leverage surrogates' efficiency gains, we develop efficient ATE estimation and inference based on flexible machine-learning estimates of nuisance functions appearing in the influence functions we derive. We empirically demonstrate the gains by studying the long-term earnings effect of job training.
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因果推断能够估计治疗效果(即,治疗结果的因果效果),使各个领域的决策受益。本研究中的一个基本挑战是观察数据的治疗偏见。为了提高对因果推断的观察研究的有效性,基于代表的方法作为最先进的方法表明了治疗效果估计的卓越性能。基于大多数基于表示的方法假设所有观察到的协变量都是预处理的(即,不受治疗影响的影响),并学习这些观察到的协变量的平衡表示,以估算治疗效果。不幸的是,这种假设往往在实践中往往是太严格的要求,因为一些协调因子是通过对治疗的干预进行改变(即,后治疗)来改变。相比之下,从不变的协变量中学到的平衡表示因此偏置治疗效果估计。
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估计平均因果效应的理想回归(如果有)是什么?我们在离散协变量的设置中研究了这个问题,从而得出了各种分层估计器的有限样本方差的表达式。这种方法阐明了许多广泛引用的结果的基本统计现象。我们的博览会结合了研究因果效应估计的三种不同的方法论传统的见解:潜在结果,因果图和具有加性误差的结构模型。
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In various fields of data science, researchers are often interested in estimating the ratio of conditional expectation functions (CEFR). Specifically in causal inference problems, it is sometimes natural to consider ratio-based treatment effects, such as odds ratios and hazard ratios, and even difference-based treatment effects are identified as CEFR in some empirically relevant settings. This chapter develops the general framework for estimation and inference on CEFR, which allows the use of flexible machine learning for infinite-dimensional nuisance parameters. In the first stage of the framework, the orthogonal signals are constructed using debiased machine learning techniques to mitigate the negative impacts of the regularization bias in the nuisance estimates on the target estimates. The signals are then combined with a novel series estimator tailored for CEFR. We derive the pointwise and uniform asymptotic results for estimation and inference on CEFR, including the validity of the Gaussian bootstrap, and provide low-level sufficient conditions to apply the proposed framework to some specific examples. We demonstrate the finite-sample performance of the series estimator constructed under the proposed framework by numerical simulations. Finally, we apply the proposed method to estimate the causal effect of the 401(k) program on household assets.
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有许多可用于选择优先考虑治疗的可用方法,包括基于治疗效果估计,风险评分和手工制作规则的遵循申请。我们将秩加权平均治疗效应(RATY)指标作为一种简单常见的指标系列,用于比较水平竞争范围的治疗优先级规则。对于如何获得优先级规则,率是不可知的,并且仅根据他们在识别受益于治疗中受益的单位的方式进行评估。我们定义了一系列速率估算器,并证明了一个中央限位定理,可以在各种随机和观测研究环境中实现渐近精确的推断。我们为使用自主置信区间的使用提供了理由,以及用于测试关于治疗效果中的异质性的假设的框架,与优先级规则相关。我们对速率的定义嵌套了许多现有度量,包括QINI系数,以及我们的分析直接产生了这些指标的推论方法。我们展示了我们从个性化医学和营销的示例中的方法。在医疗环境中,使用来自Sprint和Accor-BP随机对照试验的数据,我们发现没有明显的证据证明异质治疗效果。另一方面,在大量的营销审判中,我们在一些数字广告活动的治疗效果中发现了具有的强大证据,并证明了如何使用率如何比较优先考虑估计风险的目标规则与估计治疗效益优先考虑的目标规则。
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Causal inference is the process of using assumptions, study designs, and estimation strategies to draw conclusions about the causal relationships between variables based on data. This allows researchers to better understand the underlying mechanisms at work in complex systems and make more informed decisions. In many settings, we may not fully observe all the confounders that affect both the treatment and outcome variables, complicating the estimation of causal effects. To address this problem, a growing literature in both causal inference and machine learning proposes to use Instrumental Variables (IV). This paper serves as the first effort to systematically and comprehensively introduce and discuss the IV methods and their applications in both causal inference and machine learning. First, we provide the formal definition of IVs and discuss the identification problem of IV regression methods under different assumptions. Second, we categorize the existing work on IV methods into three streams according to the focus on the proposed methods, including two-stage least squares with IVs, control function with IVs, and evaluation of IVs. For each stream, we present both the classical causal inference methods, and recent developments in the machine learning literature. Then, we introduce a variety of applications of IV methods in real-world scenarios and provide a summary of the available datasets and algorithms. Finally, we summarize the literature, discuss the open problems and suggest promising future research directions for IV methods and their applications. We also develop a toolkit of IVs methods reviewed in this survey at https://github.com/causal-machine-learning-lab/mliv.
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大型观察数据越来越多地提供健康,经济和社会科学等学科,研究人员对因果问题而不是预测感兴趣。在本文中,从旨在调查参与学校膳食计划对健康指标的实证研究,研究了使用非参数回归的方法估算异质治疗效果的问题。首先,我们介绍了与观察或非完全随机数据进行因果推断相关的设置和相关的问题,以及如何在统计学习工具的帮助下解决这些问题。然后,我们审查并制定现有最先进的框架的统一分类,允许通过非参数回归模型来估算单个治疗效果。在介绍模型选择问题的简要概述后,我们说明了一些关于三种不同模拟研究的方法的性能。我们通过展示一些关于学校膳食计划数据的实证分析的一些方法的使用来结束。
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本文提出了在多阶段实验的背景下的异质治疗效应的置信区间结构,以$ N $样品和高维,$ D $,混淆。我们的重点是$ d \ gg n $的情况,但获得的结果也适用于低维病例。我们展示了正则化估计的偏差,在高维变焦空间中不可避免,具有简单的双重稳固分数。通过这种方式,不需要额外的偏差,并且我们获得root $ N $推理结果,同时允许治疗和协变量的多级相互依赖性。记忆财产也没有假设;治疗可能取决于所有先前的治疗作业以及以前的所有多阶段混淆。我们的结果依赖于潜在依赖的某些稀疏假设。我们发现具有动态处理的强大推理所需的新产品率条件。
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本文研究了在潜在的结果框架中使用深神经网络(DNN)的平均治疗效果(ATE)的估计和推理。在一些规则性条件下,观察到的响应可以作为与混杂变量和治疗指标作为自变量的平均回归问题的响应。使用这种配方,我们研究了通过使用特定网络架构的DNN回归基于估计平均回归函数的两种尝试估计和推断方法。我们表明ATE的两个DNN估计在底层真正的均值回归模型上的一些假设下与无维一致性率一致。我们的模型假设可容纳观察到的协变量的潜在复杂的依赖结构,包括治疗指标和混淆变量之间的潜在因子和非线性相互作用。我们还基于采样分裂的思想,确保精确推理和不确定量化,建立了我们估计的渐近常态。仿真研究和实际数据应用证明了我们的理论调查结果,支持我们的DNN估计和推理方法。
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我们考虑在估计涉及依赖参数的高维滋扰的估计方程中估计一个低维参数。一个中心示例是因果推理中(局部)分位数处理效应((L)QTE)的有效估计方程,涉及在分位数以估计的分位数评估的协方差累积分布函数。借记机学习(DML)是一种使用灵活的机器学习方法估算高维滋扰的数据分解方法,但是将其应用于参数依赖性滋扰的问题是不切实际的。对于(L)QTE,DML要求我们学习整个协变量累积分布函数。相反,我们提出了局部偏见的机器学习(LDML),该学习避免了这一繁重的步骤,并且只需要对参数进行一次初始粗糙猜测而估算烦恼。对于(L)QTE,LDML仅涉及学习两个回归功能,这是机器学习方法的标准任务。我们证明,在松弛速率条件下,我们的估计量与使用未知的真实滋扰的不可行的估计器具有相同的有利渐近行为。因此,LDML值得注意的是,当我们必须控制许多协变量和/或灵活的关系时,如(l)QTES在((l)QTES)中,实际上可以有效地估算重要数量,例如(l)QTES。
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观察数据中估算单个治疗效果(ITE)在许多领域,例如个性化医学等领域。但是,实际上,治疗分配通常被未观察到的变量混淆,因此引入了偏见。消除偏见的一种补救措施是使用仪器变量(IVS)。此类环境在医学中广泛存在(例如,将合规性用作二进制IV的试验)。在本文中,我们提出了一个新颖的,可靠的机器学习框架,称为MRIV,用于使用二进制IV估算ITES,从而产生无偏见的ITE估计器。与以前的二进制IV的工作不同,我们的框架通过伪结果回归直接估算了ITE。 (1)我们提供了一个理论分析,我们表明我们的框架产生了多重稳定的收敛速率:即使几个滋扰估计器的收敛缓慢,我们的ITE估计器也会达到快速收敛。 (2)我们进一步表明,我们的框架渐近地优于最先进的插件IV方法,以进行ITE估计。 (3)我们以理论结果为基础,并提出了一种使用二进制IVS的ITE估算的定制的,称为MRIV-NET的深度神经网络结构。在各种计算实验中,我们从经验上证明了我们的MRIV-NET实现最先进的性能。据我们所知,我们的MRIV是第一个机器学习框架,用于估算显示出倍增功能的二进制IV设置。
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在制定政策指南时,随机对照试验(RCT)代表了黄金标准。但是,RCT通常是狭窄的,并且缺乏更广泛的感兴趣人群的数据。这些人群中的因果效应通常是使用观察数据集估算的,这可能会遭受未观察到的混杂和选择偏见。考虑到一组观察估计(例如,来自多项研究),我们提出了一个试图拒绝偏见的观察性估计值的元偏值。我们使用验证效应,可以从RCT和观察数据中推断出的因果效应。在拒绝未通过此测试的估计器之后,我们对RCT中未观察到的亚组的外推性效应产生了保守的置信区间。假设至少一个观察估计量在验证和外推效果方面是渐近正常且一致的,我们为我们算法输出的间隔的覆盖率概率提供了保证。为了促进在跨数据集的因果效应运输的设置中,我们给出的条件下,即使使用灵活的机器学习方法用于估计滋扰参数,群体平均治疗效应的双重稳定估计值也是渐近的正常。我们说明了方法在半合成和现实世界数据集上的特性,并表明它与标准的荟萃分析技术相比。
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Off-Policy evaluation (OPE) is concerned with evaluating a new target policy using offline data generated by a potentially different behavior policy. It is critical in a number of sequential decision making problems ranging from healthcare to technology industries. Most of the work in existing literature is focused on evaluating the mean outcome of a given policy, and ignores the variability of the outcome. However, in a variety of applications, criteria other than the mean may be more sensible. For example, when the reward distribution is skewed and asymmetric, quantile-based metrics are often preferred for their robustness. In this paper, we propose a doubly-robust inference procedure for quantile OPE in sequential decision making and study its asymptotic properties. In particular, we propose utilizing state-of-the-art deep conditional generative learning methods to handle parameter-dependent nuisance function estimation. We demonstrate the advantages of this proposed estimator through both simulations and a real-world dataset from a short-video platform. In particular, we find that our proposed estimator outperforms classical OPE estimators for the mean in settings with heavy-tailed reward distributions.
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Although understanding and characterizing causal effects have become essential in observational studies, it is challenging when the confounders are high-dimensional. In this article, we develop a general framework $\textit{CausalEGM}$ for estimating causal effects by encoding generative modeling, which can be applied in both binary and continuous treatment settings. Under the potential outcome framework with unconfoundedness, we establish a bidirectional transformation between the high-dimensional confounders space and a low-dimensional latent space where the density is known (e.g., multivariate normal distribution). Through this, CausalEGM simultaneously decouples the dependencies of confounders on both treatment and outcome and maps the confounders to the low-dimensional latent space. By conditioning on the low-dimensional latent features, CausalEGM can estimate the causal effect for each individual or the average causal effect within a population. Our theoretical analysis shows that the excess risk for CausalEGM can be bounded through empirical process theory. Under an assumption on encoder-decoder networks, the consistency of the estimate can be guaranteed. In a series of experiments, CausalEGM demonstrates superior performance over existing methods for both binary and continuous treatments. Specifically, we find CausalEGM to be substantially more powerful than competing methods in the presence of large sample sizes and high dimensional confounders. The software of CausalEGM is freely available at https://github.com/SUwonglab/CausalEGM.
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作为因果参数的平均处理效果(ATE)的估计分为两个步骤,其中在第一步中,建模治疗和结果以包含潜在的混乱,并且在第二步中,将预测插入到其中ATE估计器,例如增强逆概率加权(AIPW)估计器。由于对混乱与治疗和结果之间的非线性或未知关系的担忧,有兴趣应用非参数学方法,例如机器学习(ML)算法。一些文献建议使用两个单独的神经网络(NNS),其中网络的参数没有正则化,除了NN优化中的随机梯度下降(SGD)。我们的模拟表明,如果没有使用正则化,则AIPW估计器会受到广泛的影响。我们提出了AIPW(称为Naipw)的正常化,这在某些情况下可以有所帮助。 Naipw,可否提供与AIPW相同的属性,即双重稳健性和正交性属性。此外,如果第一步算法收敛到足够快,则在监管条件下,Naipw将是渐近正常的。我们还在NNS上施加小于中等L1正则化的偏差和方差方面比较AIPW和NAIPW的性能。
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估算随机实验的因果效应是临床研究的核心。降低这些分析中的统计不确定性是统计学家的重要目标。注册管理机构,事先审判和健康记录构成了对患者的历史数据汇编,其在可能是可利用至此的患者下的历史数据。但是,大多数历史借贷方法通过牺牲严格的I型错误率控制来达到方差的减少。在这里,我们建议使用利用线性协变调整的历史数据来提高试验分析的效率而不会产生偏见。具体而言,我们在历史数据上培训预后模型,然后使用线性回归估计治疗效果,同时调整试验受试者预测结果(其预后分数)。我们证明,在某些条件下,这种预后调整程序在大类估算仪中获得了最低差异。当不符合这些条件时,预后的协变量调整仍然比原始协变量调整更有效,并且效率的增益与上述预后模型的预测准确性的衡量标准成正比,与原始协变量的线性关系的预测准确性。我们展示了使用模拟的方法和阿尔茨海默病的临床试验的再分析,并观察平均平均误差的有意义减少和估计方差。最后,我们提供了一种简化的渐近方差公式,使得能够计算这些收益的功率计算。在使用预后模型的预后模型中,可以实现10%和30%的样品尺寸减少。
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在本文中,我们的目标是提供对半监督(SS)因果推理的一般性和完全理解治疗效果。具体而言,我们考虑两个这样的估计值:(a)平均治疗效果和(b)定量处理效果,作为原型案例,在SS设置中,其特征在于两个可用的数据集:(i)标记的数据集大小$ N $,为响应和一组高维协变量以及二元治疗指标提供观察。 (ii)一个未标记的数据集,大小超过$ n $,但未观察到的响应。使用这两个数据集,我们开发了一个SS估计系列,该系列是:(1)更强大,并且(2)比其监督对应力更高的基于标记的数据集。除了通过监督方法可以实现的“标准”双重稳健结果(在一致性方面),我们还在正确指定模型中的倾向得分,我们进一步建立了我们SS估计的根本-N一致性和渐近常态。没有需要涉及的特定形式的滋扰职能。这种改善的鲁棒性来自使用大规模未标记的数据,因此通常不能在纯粹监督的环境中获得。此外,只要正确指定所有滋扰函数,我们的估计值都显示为半参数效率。此外,作为滋扰估计器的说明,我们考虑逆概率加权型核平滑估计,涉及未知的协变量转换机制,并在高维情景新颖的情况下建立其统一的收敛速率,这应该是独立的兴趣。两种模拟和实际数据的数值结果验证了我们对其监督对应物的优势,了解鲁棒性和效率。
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