We apply reinforcement learning (RL) to robotics. One of the drawbacks of traditional RL algorithms has been their poor sample efficiency. One approach to improve it is model-based RL. We learn a model of the environment, essentially its dynamics and reward function, use it to generate imaginary trajectories and backpropagate through them to update the policy, exploiting the differentiability of the model. Intuitively, learning more accurate models should lead to better performance. Recently, there has been growing interest in developing better deep neural network based dynamics models for physical systems, through better inductive biases. We focus on robotic systems undergoing rigid body motion. We compare two versions of our model-based RL algorithm, one which uses a standard deep neural network based dynamics model and the other which uses a much more accurate, physics-informed neural network based dynamics model. We show that, in environments that are not sensitive to initial conditions, model accuracy matters only to some extent, as numerical errors accumulate slowly. In these environments, both versions achieve similar average-return, while the physics-informed version achieves better sample efficiency. We show that, in environments that are sensitive to initial conditions, model accuracy matters a lot, as numerical errors accumulate fast. In these environments, the physics-informed version achieves significantly better average-return and sample efficiency. We show that, in challenging environments, where we need a lot of samples to learn, physics-informed model-based RL can achieve better asymptotic performance than model-free RL, by generating accurate imaginary data, which allows it to perform many more policy updates. In these environments, our physics-informed model-based RL approach achieves better average-return than Soft Actor-Critic, a SOTA model-free RL algorithm.

演员 - 评论家RL广泛用于各种机器人控制任务。通过从变分推理（VI）的角度来看演员 - 评论仪RL，训练策略网络以获得给定最优标准的动作的近似。然而，在实践中，演员 - 评论家RL可能会因摊销缺口而产生次优政策估计，并勘探不足。在这项工作中，受到先前使用Hamiltonian Monte Carlo（HMC）在VI中的启发，我们建议将演员 - 评论家RL的政策网络与HMC纳入其中，被称为{\ IT Hamiltonian政策}。因此，我们建议根据HMC从基础政策中发展行动，我们提出的方法具有许多好处。首先，HMC可以改善策略分布，以更好地近似后，因此降低摊销间隙。其次，HMC还可以将勘探更多到具有更高Q值的动作空间区域，提高勘探效率。此外，我们提出了一种新的LEAPFROG运算符来模拟HAMILTONIAN Dynamics。最后，在安全的RL问题中，我们发现所提出的方法不仅可以改善实现的回报，还可以通过丢弃可能的不安全行动来减少安全约束违规行为。在连续控制基线的综合实验实验中，包括Mujoco和Pybullet Roboschool，我们表明该方法是对以前的演员批评方法的数据有效且易于实施的改进。

强化学习（RL）文献的最新进展使机器人主义者能够在模拟环境中自动训练复杂的政策。但是，由于这些方法的样本复杂性差，使用现实世界数据解决强化学习问题仍然是一个具有挑战性的问题。本文介绍了一种新颖的成本整形方法，旨在减少学习稳定控制器所需的样品数量。该方法添加了一个涉及控制Lyapunov功能（CLF）的术语 - 基于模型的控制文献的“能量样”功能 - 到典型的成本配方。理论结果表明，新的成本会导致使用较小的折现因子时稳定控制器，这是众所周知的，以降低样品复杂性。此外，通过确保即使是高度亚最佳的策略也可以稳定系统，添加CLF术语“鲁棒化”搜索稳定控制器。我们通过两个硬件示例演示了我们的方法，在其中我们学习了一个cartpole的稳定控制器和仅使用几秒钟和几分钟的微调数据的A1稳定控制器。

In order to avoid conventional controlling methods which created obstacles due to the complexity of systems and intense demand on data density, developing modern and more efficient control methods are required. In this way, reinforcement learning off-policy and model-free algorithms help to avoid working with complex models. In terms of speed and accuracy, they become prominent methods because the algorithms use their past experience to learn the optimal policies. In this study, three reinforcement learning algorithms; DDPG, TD3 and SAC have been used to train Fetch robotic manipulator for four different tasks in MuJoCo simulation environment. All of these algorithms are off-policy and able to achieve their desired target by optimizing both policy and value functions. In the current study, the efficiency and the speed of these three algorithms are analyzed in a controlled environment.

In contrast to the control-theoretic methods, the lack of stability guarantee remains a significant problem for model-free reinforcement learning (RL) methods. Jointly learning a policy and a Lyapunov function has recently become a promising approach to ensuring the whole system with a stability guarantee. However, the classical Lyapunov constraints researchers introduced cannot stabilize the system during the sampling-based optimization. Therefore, we propose the Adaptive Stability Certification (ASC), making the system reach sampling-based stability. Because the ASC condition can search for the optimal policy heuristically, we design the Adaptive Lyapunov-based Actor-Critic (ALAC) algorithm based on the ASC condition. Meanwhile, our algorithm avoids the optimization problem that a variety of constraints are coupled into the objective in current approaches. When evaluated on ten robotic tasks, our method achieves lower accumulated cost and fewer stability constraint violations than previous studies.

基于模型的增强学习（RL）通过学习动态模型来生成用于策略学习的样本，在实践中实现了实践中的样本效率更高。先前的作品学习了一个“全球”动力学模型，以适合所有历史政策的国家行动探视分布。但是，在本文中，我们发现学习全球动力学模型并不一定会受益于当前策略的模型预测，因为使用的策略正在不断发展。培训期间不断发展的政策将导致州行动探访分配变化。我们理论上分析了历史政策的分布如何影响模型学习和模型推出。然后，我们提出了一种基于模型的新型RL方法，名为\ textit {策略适应模型基于contor-Critic（PMAC）}，该方法基于策略适应机制学习了一个基于策略适应的动力学模型。该机制会动态调整历史政策混合分布，以确保学习模型可以不断适应不断发展的政策的国家行动探视分布。在Mujoco中的一系列连续控制环境上进行的实验表明，PMAC可以实现最新的渐近性能，而样品效率几乎是基于模型的方法的两倍。

System identification, also known as learning forward models, transfer functions, system dynamics, etc., has a long tradition both in science and engineering in different fields. Particularly, it is a recurring theme in Reinforcement Learning research, where forward models approximate the state transition function of a Markov Decision Process by learning a mapping function from current state and action to the next state. This problem is commonly defined as a Supervised Learning problem in a direct way. This common approach faces several difficulties due to the inherent complexities of the dynamics to learn, for example, delayed effects, high non-linearity, non-stationarity, partial observability and, more important, error accumulation when using bootstrapped predictions (predictions based on past predictions), over large time horizons. Here we explore the use of Reinforcement Learning in this problem. We elaborate on why and how this problem fits naturally and sound as a Reinforcement Learning problem, and present some experimental results that demonstrate RL is a promising technique to solve these kind of problems.

提高强化学习样本效率的一种有希望的方法是基于模型的方法，其中在学习模型中可以进行许多探索和评估以节省现实世界样本。但是，当学习模型具有不可忽略的模型误差时，很难准确评估模型中的顺序步骤，从而限制了模型的利用率。本文建议通过引入多步计划来替换基于模型的RL的多步骤操作来减轻此问题。我们采用多步计划价值估计，该估计在执行给定状态的一系列操作计划后评估预期的折扣收益，并通过直接通过计划价值估计来直接计算多步策略梯度来更新策略。新的基于模型的强化学习算法MPPVE（基于模型的计划策略学习具有多步计划价值估计）显示了对学习模型的利用率更好，并且比基于ART模型的RL更好地实现了样本效率方法。

通过加强学习（RL）掌握机器人操纵技巧通常需要设计奖励功能。该地区的最新进展表明，使用稀疏奖励，即仅在成功完成任务时奖励代理，可能会导致更好的政策。但是，在这种情况下，国家行动空间探索更困难。最近的RL与稀疏奖励学习的方法已经为任务提供了高质量的人类演示，但这些可能是昂贵的，耗时甚至不可能获得的。在本文中，我们提出了一种不需要人类示范的新颖有效方法。我们观察到，每个机器人操纵任务都可以被视为涉及从被操纵对象的角度来看运动的任务，即，对象可以了解如何自己达到目标状态。为了利用这个想法，我们介绍了一个框架，最初使用现实物理模拟器获得对象运动策略。然后，此策略用于生成辅助奖励，称为模拟的机器人演示奖励（SLDRS），使我们能够学习机器人操纵策略。拟议的方法已在增加复杂性的13个任务中进行了评估，与替代算法相比，可以实现更高的成功率和更快的学习率。 SLDRS对多对象堆叠和非刚性物体操作等任务特别有益。

近年来，深度加固学习（DRL）已经成功地进入了复杂的决策应用，例如机器人，自动驾驶或视频游戏。违规算法往往比其策略对应物更具样本效率，并且可以从存储在重放缓冲区中存储的任何违规数据中受益。专家演示是此类数据的流行来源：代理人接触到成功的国家和行动，可以加速学习过程并提高性能。在过去，已经提出了多种想法来充分利用缓冲区中的演示，例如仅在演示或最小化额外的成本函数的预先估算。我们继续进行研究，以孤立地评估这些想法中的几个想法，以了解哪一个具有最大的影响。我们还根据给予示范和成功集中的奖励奖金，为稀疏奖励任务提供了一种新的方法。首先，我们向来自示威活动的过渡提供奖励奖金，以鼓励代理商符合所证明的行为。然后，在收集成功的剧集时，我们将其在将其添加到重播缓冲区之前与相同的奖金转换，鼓励代理也与其先前的成功相匹配。我们的实验的基本算法是流行的软演员 - 评论家（SAC），用于连续动作空间的最先进的脱核算法。我们的实验专注于操纵机器人，特别是在模拟中的机器人手臂的3D到达任务。我们表明，我们的方法Sacr2根据奖励重新标记提高了此任务的性能，即使在没有示范的情况下也是如此。

本文为基于MPC的基于MPC模型的增强学习方法的计划模块提出了一个新的评分功能，以解决使用奖励功能得分轨迹的固有偏见。所提出的方法使用折现价值和折扣价值提高了现有基于MPC的MBRL方法的学习效率。该方法利用最佳轨迹来指导策略学习，并根据现实世界更新其状态行动价值函数，并增强板载数据。在选定的Mujoco健身环境中评估了所提出方法的学习效率，以及在学习的模拟机器人模型中学习运动技能。结果表明，所提出的方法在学习效率和平均奖励回报方面优于当前的最新算法。

Offline reinforcement learning (RL) is suitable for safety-critical domains where online exploration is too costly or dangerous. In safety-critical settings, decision-making should take into consideration the risk of catastrophic outcomes. In other words, decision-making should be risk-sensitive. Previous works on risk in offline RL combine together offline RL techniques, to avoid distributional shift, with risk-sensitive RL algorithms, to achieve risk-sensitivity. In this work, we propose risk-sensitivity as a mechanism to jointly address both of these issues. Our model-based approach is risk-averse to both epistemic and aleatoric uncertainty. Risk-aversion to epistemic uncertainty prevents distributional shift, as areas not covered by the dataset have high epistemic uncertainty. Risk-aversion to aleatoric uncertainty discourages actions that may result in poor outcomes due to environment stochasticity. Our experiments show that our algorithm achieves competitive performance on deterministic benchmarks, and outperforms existing approaches for risk-sensitive objectives in stochastic domains.

软执行器为轻柔的抓握和灵活的操纵等任务提供了一种安全，适应性的方法。但是，由于可变形材料的复杂物理学，创建准确的模型来控制此类系统是具有挑战性的。准确的有限元方法（FEM）模型具有用于闭环使用的过度计算复杂性。使用可区分的模拟器是一种有吸引力的替代方案，但是它们适用于软执行器，可变形材料仍然没有被忽略。本文提出了一个结合两者优势的框架。我们学习了一个由材料属性神经网络和其余操纵任务的分析动力学模型组成的可区分模型。该物理信息模型是使用FEM生成的数据训练的，可用于闭环控制和推理。我们在介电弹性体执行器（DEA）硬币提取任务上评估我们的框架。我们模拟使用DEA使用摩擦接触，使用FEM沿着表面拉动硬币的任务，并评估物理信息模型以进行模拟，控制和推理。与FEM相比，我们的模型达到了<5％的仿真误差，我们将其用作MPC控制器的基础，MPC控制器比无模型的参与者 - 批评者，PD和启发式策略所需的迭代率更少。

尽管强化学习（RL）对于不确定性下的顺序决策问题有效，但在风险或安全性是具有约束力约束的现实系统中，它仍然无法蓬勃发展。在本文中，我们将安全限制作为非零和游戏制定了RL问题。在用最大熵RL部署的同时，此配方会导致一个安全的对手引导的软角色批评框架，称为SAAC。在SAAC中，对手旨在打破安全约束，而RL代理的目标是在对手的策略下最大程度地提高约束价值功能。对代理的价值函数的安全限制仅表现为代理商和对手政策之间的排斥项。与以前的方法不同，SAAC可以解决不同的安全标准，例如安全探索，均值差异风险敏感性和类似CVAR的相干风险敏感性。我们说明了这些约束的对手的设计。然后，在每种变化中，我们都表明，除了学习解决任务外，代理人与对手的不安全行为不同。最后，对于具有挑战性的持续控制任务，我们证明SAAC可以实现更快的融合，提高效率和更少的失败以满足安全限制，而不是风险避免风险的分布RL和风险中性的软性参与者批判性算法。

Model-free deep reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms have been demonstrated on a range of challenging decision making and control tasks. However, these methods typically suffer from two major challenges: very high sample complexity and brittle convergence properties, which necessitate meticulous hyperparameter tuning. Both of these challenges severely limit the applicability of such methods to complex, real-world domains. In this paper, we propose soft actor-critic, an offpolicy actor-critic deep RL algorithm based on the maximum entropy reinforcement learning framework. In this framework, the actor aims to maximize expected reward while also maximizing entropy. That is, to succeed at the task while acting as randomly as possible. Prior deep RL methods based on this framework have been formulated as Q-learning methods. By combining off-policy updates with a stable stochastic actor-critic formulation, our method achieves state-of-the-art performance on a range of continuous control benchmark tasks, outperforming prior on-policy and off-policy methods. Furthermore, we demonstrate that, in contrast to other off-policy algorithms, our approach is very stable, achieving very similar performance across different random seeds.

钢筋学习的最新进展证明了其在超级人类水平上解决硬质孕代环境互动任务的能力。然而，由于大多数RL最先进的算法的样本低效率，即，需要大量培训集，因此在实际和现实世界任务中的应用目前有限。例如，在Dota 2中击败人类参与者的Openai五种算法已经训练了数千年的游戏时间。存在解决样本低效问题的几种方法，可以通过更好地探索环境来提供更有效的使用或旨在获得更相关和多样化的经验。然而，为了我们的知识，没有用于基于模型的算法的这种方法，其在求解具有高维状态空间的硬控制任务方面的高采样效率。这项工作连接了探索技术和基于模型的加强学习。我们设计了一种新颖的探索方法，考虑了基于模型的方法的特征。我们还通过实验证明我们的方法显着提高了基于模型的算法梦想家的性能。

Deep reinforcement learning is poised to revolutionise the field of AI and represents a step towards building autonomous systems with a higher level understanding of the visual world. Currently, deep learning is enabling reinforcement learning to scale to problems that were previously intractable, such as learning to play video games directly from pixels. Deep reinforcement learning algorithms are also applied to robotics, allowing control policies for robots to be learned directly from camera inputs in the real world. In this survey, we begin with an introduction to the general field of reinforcement learning, then progress to the main streams of value-based and policybased methods. Our survey will cover central algorithms in deep reinforcement learning, including the deep Q-network, trust region policy optimisation, and asynchronous advantage actor-critic. In parallel, we highlight the unique advantages of deep neural networks, focusing on visual understanding via reinforcement learning. To conclude, we describe several current areas of research within the field.

软演员 - 评论家（SAC）是最先进的偏离策略强化学习（RL）算法之一，其在基于最大熵的RL框架内。 SAC被证明在具有良好稳定性和稳健性的持续控制任务的列表中表现得非常好。 SAC了解一个随机高斯政策，可以最大限度地提高预期奖励和政策熵之间的权衡。要更新策略，SAC可最大限度地减少当前策略密度与软值函数密度之间的kl分歧。然后用于获得这种分歧的近似梯度的回报。在本文中，我们提出了跨熵策略优化（SAC-CEPO）的软演员 - 评论家，它使用跨熵方法（CEM）来优化SAC的政策网络。初始思想是使用CEM来迭代地对软价函数密度的最接近的分布进行采样，并使用结果分布作为更新策略网络的目标。为了降低计算复杂性，我们还介绍了一个解耦的策略结构，该策略结构将高斯策略解耦为一个策略，了解了学习均值的均值和另一个策略，以便只有CEM训练平均政策。我们表明，这种解耦的政策结构确实会聚到最佳，我们还通过实验证明SAC-CEPO实现对原始囊的竞争性能。

We adapt the ideas underlying the success of Deep Q-Learning to the continuous action domain. We present an actor-critic, model-free algorithm based on the deterministic policy gradient that can operate over continuous action spaces. Using the same learning algorithm, network architecture and hyper-parameters, our algorithm robustly solves more than 20 simulated physics tasks, including classic problems such as cartpole swing-up, dexterous manipulation, legged locomotion and car driving. Our algorithm is able to find policies whose performance is competitive with those found by a planning algorithm with full access to the dynamics of the domain and its derivatives. We further demonstrate that for many of the tasks the algorithm can learn policies "end-to-end": directly from raw pixel inputs.

Adversarial Imitation Learning (AIL) is a class of popular state-of-the-art Imitation Learning algorithms commonly used in robotics. In AIL, an artificial adversary's misclassification is used as a reward signal that is optimized by any standard Reinforcement Learning (RL) algorithm. Unlike most RL settings, the reward in AIL is $differentiable$ but current model-free RL algorithms do not make use of this property to train a policy. The reward is AIL is also shaped since it comes from an adversary. We leverage the differentiability property of the shaped AIL reward function and formulate a class of Actor Residual Critic (ARC) RL algorithms. ARC algorithms draw a parallel to the standard Actor-Critic (AC) algorithms in RL literature and uses a residual critic, $C$ function (instead of the standard $Q$ function) to approximate only the discounted future return (excluding the immediate reward). ARC algorithms have similar convergence properties as the standard AC algorithms with the additional advantage that the gradient through the immediate reward is exact. For the discrete (tabular) case with finite states, actions, and known dynamics, we prove that policy iteration with $C$ function converges to an optimal policy. In the continuous case with function approximation and unknown dynamics, we experimentally show that ARC aided AIL outperforms standard AIL in simulated continuous-control and real robotic manipulation tasks. ARC algorithms are simple to implement and can be incorporated into any existing AIL implementation with an AC algorithm. Video and link to code are available at: https://sites.google.com/view/actor-residual-critic.