使用环境模型和值函数,代理可以通过向不同长度展开模型来构造状态值的许多估计,并使用其值函数引导。我们的关键识别是,人们可以将这组价值估计视为一类合奏,我们称之为\ eNPH {隐式值合奏}(IVE)。因此,这些估计之间的差异可用作代理人的认知不确定性的代理;我们将此信号术语\ EMPH {Model-Value不一致}或\ EMPH {自给智而不一致。与先前的工作不同,该工作估计通过培训许多模型和/或价值函数的集合来估计不确定性,这种方法只需要在大多数基于模型的加强学习算法中学习的单一模型和价值函数。我们在单板和函数近似设置中提供了从像素的表格和函数近似设置中的经验证据是有用的(i)作为探索的信号,(ii)在分发班次下安全地行动,(iii),用于使用基于价值的规划模型。
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在时间差异增强学习算法中,价值估计的差异会导致最大目标值的不稳定性和高估。已经提出了许多算法来减少高估,包括最近的几种集合方法,但是,没有通过解决估计方差作为高估的根本原因来表现出样品效率学习的成功。在本文中,我们提出了一种简单的集合方法,将目标值估计为集合均值。尽管它很简单,但卑鄙的(还是在Atari学习环境基准测试的实验中显示出明显的样本效率)。重要的是,我们发现大小5的合奏充分降低了估计方差以消除滞后目标网络,从而消除了它作为偏见的来源并进一步获得样本效率。我们以直观和经验的方式为曲线的设计选择证明了合理性,包括独立经验抽样的必要性。在一组26个基准ATARI环境中,曲线均优于所有经过测试的基线,包括最佳的基线,日出,在16/26环境中的100K交互步骤,平均为68​​%。在21/26的环境中,曲线还优于500k步骤的Rainbow DQN,平均为49%,并使用200K($ \ pm $ 100k)的交互步骤实现平均人级绩效。我们的实施可从https://github.com/indylab/meanq获得。
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Many practical applications of reinforcement learning constrain agents to learn from a fixed batch of data which has already been gathered, without offering further possibility for data collection. In this paper, we demonstrate that due to errors introduced by extrapolation, standard offpolicy deep reinforcement learning algorithms, such as DQN and DDPG, are incapable of learning without data correlated to the distribution under the current policy, making them ineffective for this fixed batch setting. We introduce a novel class of off-policy algorithms, batch-constrained reinforcement learning, which restricts the action space in order to force the agent towards behaving close to on-policy with respect to a subset of the given data. We present the first continuous control deep reinforcement learning algorithm which can learn effectively from arbitrary, fixed batch data, and empirically demonstrate the quality of its behavior in several tasks.
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离线RL算法必须说明其提供的数据集可能使环境的许多方面未知。应对这一挑战的最常见方法是采用悲观或保守的方法,避免行为与培训数据集中的行为过于不同。但是,仅依靠保守主义存在缺点:绩效对保守主义的确切程度很敏感,保守的目标可以恢复高度最佳的政策。在这项工作中,我们建议在不确定性的情况下,脱机RL方法应该是适应性的。我们表明,在贝叶斯的意义上,在离线RL中最佳作用涉及解决隐式POMDP。结果,离线RL的最佳策略必须是自适应的,这不仅取决于当前状态,而且还取决于迄今为止在评估期间看到的所有过渡。我们提出了一种无模型的算法,用于近似于此最佳自适应策略,并证明在离线RL基准测试中学习此类适应性政策。
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Model-Based Reinforcement Learning (RL) is widely believed to have the potential to improve sample efficiency by allowing an agent to synthesize large amounts of imagined experience. Experience Replay (ER) can be considered a simple kind of model, which has proved extremely effective at improving the stability and efficiency of deep RL. In principle, a learned parametric model could improve on ER by generalizing from real experience to augment the dataset with additional plausible experience. However, owing to the many design choices involved in empirically successful algorithms, it can be very hard to establish where the benefits are actually coming from. Here, we provide theoretical and empirical insight into when, and how, we can expect data generated by a learned model to be useful. First, we provide a general theorem motivating how learning a model as an intermediate step can narrow down the set of possible value functions more than learning a value function directly from data using the Bellman equation. Second, we provide an illustrative example showing empirically how a similar effect occurs in a more concrete setting with neural network function approximation. Finally, we provide extensive experiments showing the benefit of model-based learning for online RL in environments with combinatorial complexity, but factored structure that allows a learned model to generalize. In these experiments, we take care to control for other factors in order to isolate, insofar as possible, the benefit of using experience generated by a learned model relative to ER alone.
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Offline reinforcement learning (RL) promises the ability to learn effective policies solely using existing, static datasets, without any costly online interaction. To do so, offline RL methods must handle distributional shift between the dataset and the learned policy. The most common approach is to learn conservative, or lower-bound, value functions, which underestimate the return of out-of-distribution (OOD) actions. However, such methods exhibit one notable drawback: policies optimized on such value functions can only behave according to a fixed, possibly suboptimal, degree of conservatism. However, this can be alleviated if we instead are able to learn policies for varying degrees of conservatism at training time and devise a method to dynamically choose one of them during evaluation. To do so, in this work, we propose learning value functions that additionally condition on the degree of conservatism, which we dub confidence-conditioned value functions. We derive a new form of a Bellman backup that simultaneously learns Q-values for any degree of confidence with high probability. By conditioning on confidence, our value functions enable adaptive strategies during online evaluation by controlling for confidence level using the history of observations thus far. This approach can be implemented in practice by conditioning the Q-function from existing conservative algorithms on the confidence. We theoretically show that our learned value functions produce conservative estimates of the true value at any desired confidence. Finally, we empirically show that our algorithm outperforms existing conservative offline RL algorithms on multiple discrete control domains.
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不确定性在游戏中无处不在,无论是在玩游戏的代理商还是在游戏本身中。因此,不确定性是成功深入强化学习剂的重要组成部分。尽管在理解和处理监督学习的不确定性方面已经做出了巨大的努力和进展,但不确定性的文献意识到深度强化学习的发展却较少。尽管有关监督学习的神经网络中的不确定性的许多相同问题仍然用于强化学习,但由于可相互作用的环境的性质,还有其他不确定性来源。在这项工作中,我们提供了一个激励和介绍不确定性深入强化学习的现有技术的概述。这些作品在各种强化学习任务上显示出经验益处。这项工作有助于集中不同的结果并促进该领域的未来研究。
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强化学习(RL)通过与环境相互作用的试验过程解决顺序决策问题。尽管RL在玩复杂的视频游戏方面取得了巨大的成功,但在现实世界中,犯错误总是不希望的。为了提高样本效率并从而降低错误,据信基于模型的增强学习(MBRL)是一个有前途的方向,它建立了环境模型,在该模型中可以进行反复试验,而无需实际成本。在这项调查中,我们对MBRL进行了审查,重点是Deep RL的最新进展。对于非壮观环境,学到的环境模型与真实环境之间始终存在概括性错误。因此,非常重要的是分析环境模型中的政策培训与实际环境中的差异,这反过来又指导了更好的模型学习,模型使用和政策培训的算法设计。此外,我们还讨论了其他形式的RL,包括离线RL,目标条件RL,多代理RL和Meta-RL的最新进展。此外,我们讨论了MBRL在现实世界任务中的适用性和优势。最后,我们通过讨论MBRL未来发展的前景来结束这项调查。我们认为,MBRL在被忽略的现实应用程序中具有巨大的潜力和优势,我们希望这项调查能够吸引更多关于MBRL的研究。
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我们介绍了一种改进政策改进的方法,该方法在基于价值的强化学习(RL)的贪婪方法与基于模型的RL的典型计划方法之间进行了插值。新方法建立在几何视野模型(GHM,也称为伽马模型)的概念上,该模型对给定策略的折现状态验证分布进行了建模。我们表明,我们可以通过仔细的基本策略GHM的仔细组成,而无需任何其他学习,可以评估任何非马尔科夫策略,以固定的概率在一组基本马尔可夫策略之间切换。然后,我们可以将广义政策改进(GPI)应用于此类非马尔科夫政策的收集,以获得新的马尔可夫政策,通常将其表现优于其先驱。我们对这种方法提供了彻底的理论分析,开发了转移和标准RL的应用,并在经验上证明了其对标准GPI的有效性,对充满挑战的深度RL连续控制任务。我们还提供了GHM培训方法的分析,证明了关于先前提出的方法的新型收敛结果,并显示了如何在深度RL设置中稳定训练这些模型。
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Effectively leveraging large, previously collected datasets in reinforcement learning (RL) is a key challenge for large-scale real-world applications. Offline RL algorithms promise to learn effective policies from previously-collected, static datasets without further interaction. However, in practice, offline RL presents a major challenge, and standard off-policy RL methods can fail due to overestimation of values induced by the distributional shift between the dataset and the learned policy, especially when training on complex and multi-modal data distributions. In this paper, we propose conservative Q-learning (CQL), which aims to address these limitations by learning a conservative Q-function such that the expected value of a policy under this Q-function lower-bounds its true value. We theoretically show that CQL produces a lower bound on the value of the current policy and that it can be incorporated into a policy learning procedure with theoretical improvement guarantees. In practice, CQL augments the standard Bellman error objective with a simple Q-value regularizer which is straightforward to implement on top of existing deep Q-learning and actor-critic implementations. On both discrete and continuous control domains, we show that CQL substantially outperforms existing offline RL methods, often learning policies that attain 2-5 times higher final return, especially when learning from complex and multi-modal data distributions.Preprint. Under review.
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Adequately assigning credit to actions for future outcomes based on their contributions is a long-standing open challenge in Reinforcement Learning. The assumptions of the most commonly used credit assignment method are disadvantageous in tasks where the effects of decisions are not immediately evident. Furthermore, this method can only evaluate actions that have been selected by the agent, making it highly inefficient. Still, no alternative methods have been widely adopted in the field. Hindsight Credit Assignment is a promising, but still unexplored candidate, which aims to solve the problems of both long-term and counterfactual credit assignment. In this thesis, we empirically investigate Hindsight Credit Assignment to identify its main benefits, and key points to improve. Then, we apply it to factored state representations, and in particular to state representations based on the causal structure of the environment. In this setting, we propose a variant of Hindsight Credit Assignment that effectively exploits a given causal structure. We show that our modification greatly decreases the workload of Hindsight Credit Assignment, making it more efficient and enabling it to outperform the baseline credit assignment method on various tasks. This opens the way to other methods based on given or learned causal structures.
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深度强化学习(RL)导致了许多最近和开创性的进步。但是,这些进步通常以培训的基础体系结构的规模增加以及用于训练它们的RL算法的复杂性提高,而均以增加规模的成本。这些增长反过来又使研究人员更难迅速原型新想法或复制已发表的RL算法。为了解决这些问题,这项工作描述了ACME,这是一个用于构建新型RL算法的框架,这些框架是专门设计的,用于启用使用简单的模块化组件构建的代理,这些组件可以在各种执行范围内使用。尽管ACME的主要目标是为算法开发提供一个框架,但第二个目标是提供重要或最先进算法的简单参考实现。这些实现既是对我们的设计决策的验证,也是对RL研究中可重复性的重要贡献。在这项工作中,我们描述了ACME内部做出的主要设计决策,并提供了有关如何使用其组件来实施各种算法的进一步详细信息。我们的实验为许多常见和最先进的算法提供了基准,并显示了如何为更大且更复杂的环境扩展这些算法。这突出了ACME的主要优点之一,即它可用于实现大型,分布式的RL算法,这些算法可以以较大的尺度运行,同时仍保持该实现的固有可读性。这项工作提出了第二篇文章的版本,恰好与模块化的增加相吻合,对离线,模仿和从演示算法学习以及作为ACME的一部分实现的各种新代理。
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Offline reinforcement learning (RL) is suitable for safety-critical domains where online exploration is too costly or dangerous. In safety-critical settings, decision-making should take into consideration the risk of catastrophic outcomes. In other words, decision-making should be risk-sensitive. Previous works on risk in offline RL combine together offline RL techniques, to avoid distributional shift, with risk-sensitive RL algorithms, to achieve risk-sensitivity. In this work, we propose risk-sensitivity as a mechanism to jointly address both of these issues. Our model-based approach is risk-averse to both epistemic and aleatoric uncertainty. Risk-aversion to epistemic uncertainty prevents distributional shift, as areas not covered by the dataset have high epistemic uncertainty. Risk-aversion to aleatoric uncertainty discourages actions that may result in poor outcomes due to environment stochasticity. Our experiments show that our algorithm achieves competitive performance on deterministic benchmarks, and outperforms existing approaches for risk-sensitive objectives in stochastic domains.
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我们确定和研究政策流失的现象,即基于价值的强化学习中贪婪政策的快速变化。政策流失以惊人的快速步伐运作,改变了少数学习更新(在Atari上的DQN等典型的深层RL设置中)中大量州的贪婪行动。我们从经验上表征了现象,验证它不限于特定算法或环境特性。许多消融有助于削弱关于为什么流失仅与深度学习有关的少数相关的合理解释。最后,我们假设政策流失是一种有益但被忽视的隐性探索形式,它以新鲜的方式铸造了$ \ epsilon $ greedy探索,即$ \ epsilon $ - noise的作用比预期的要小得多。
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深度强化学习(DRL)和深度多机构的强化学习(MARL)在包括游戏AI,自动驾驶汽车,机器人技术等各种领域取得了巨大的成功。但是,众所周知,DRL和Deep MARL代理的样本效率低下,即使对于相对简单的问题设置,通常也需要数百万个相互作用,从而阻止了在实地场景中的广泛应用和部署。背后的一个瓶颈挑战是众所周知的探索问题,即如何有效地探索环境和收集信息丰富的经验,从而使政策学习受益于最佳研究。在稀疏的奖励,吵闹的干扰,长距离和非平稳的共同学习者的复杂环境中,这个问题变得更加具有挑战性。在本文中,我们对单格和多代理RL的现有勘探方法进行了全面的调查。我们通过确定有效探索的几个关键挑战开始调查。除了上述两个主要分支外,我们还包括其他具有不同思想和技术的著名探索方法。除了算法分析外,我们还对一组常用基准的DRL进行了全面和统一的经验比较。根据我们的算法和实证研究,我们终于总结了DRL和Deep Marl中探索的公开问题,并指出了一些未来的方向。
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自成立以来,建立在广泛任务中表现出色的普通代理的任务一直是强化学习的重要目标。这个问题一直是对Alarge工作体系的研究的主题,并且经常通过观察Atari 57基准中包含的广泛范围环境的分数来衡量的性能。 Agent57是所有57场比赛中第一个超过人类基准的代理商,但这是以数据效率差的代价,需要实现近800亿帧的经验。以Agent57为起点,我们采用了各种各样的形式,以降低超过人类基线所需的经验200倍。在减少数据制度和Propose有效的解决方案时,我们遇到了一系列不稳定性和瓶颈,以构建更强大,更有效的代理。我们还使用诸如Muesli和Muzero之类的高性能方法证明了竞争性的性能。 TOOUR方法的四个关键组成部分是(1)近似信任区域方法,该方法可以从TheOnline网络中稳定引导,(2)损失和优先级的归一化方案,在学习具有广泛量表的一组值函数时,可以提高鲁棒性, (3)改进的体系结构采用了NFNET的技术技术来利用更深的网络而无需标准化层,并且(4)政策蒸馏方法可使瞬时贪婪的策略加班。
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当相互作用数据稀缺时,深厚的增强学习(RL)算法遭受了严重的性能下降,这限制了其现实世界的应用。最近,视觉表示学习已被证明是有效的,并且有望提高RL样品效率。这些方法通常依靠对比度学习和数据扩展来训练状态预测的过渡模型,这与在RL中使用模型的方式不同 - 基于价值的计划。因此,学到的模型可能无法与环境保持良好状态并产生一致的价值预测,尤其是当国家过渡不是确定性的情况下。为了解决这个问题,我们提出了一种称为价值一致表示学习(VCR)的新颖方法,以学习与决策直接相关的表示形式。更具体地说,VCR训练一个模型,以预测基于当前的状态(也称为“想象的状态”)和一系列动作。 VCR没有将这个想象中的状态与环境返回的真实状态保持一致,而是在两个状态上应用$ q $ - 价值头,并获得了两个行动值分布。然后将距离计算并最小化以迫使想象的状态产生与真实状态相似的动作值预测。我们为离散和连续的动作空间开发了上述想法的两个实现。我们对Atari 100K和DeepMind Control Suite基准测试进行实验,以验证其提高样品效率的有效性。已经证明,我们的方法实现了无搜索RL算法的新最新性能。
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While reinforcement learning algorithms provide automated acquisition of optimal policies, practical application of such methods requires a number of design decisions, such as manually designing reward functions that not only define the task, but also provide sufficient shaping to accomplish it. In this paper, we view reinforcement learning as inferring policies that achieve desired outcomes, rather than as a problem of maximizing rewards. To solve this inference problem, we establish a novel variational inference formulation that allows us to derive a well-shaped reward function which can be learned directly from environment interactions. From the corresponding variational objective, we also derive a new probabilistic Bellman backup operator and use it to develop an off-policy algorithm to solve goal-directed tasks. We empirically demonstrate that this method eliminates the need to hand-craft reward functions for a suite of diverse manipulation and locomotion tasks and leads to effective goal-directed behaviors.
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依赖于太多的实验来学习良好的行动,目前的强化学习(RL)算法在现实世界的环境中具有有限的适用性,这可能太昂贵,无法探索探索。我们提出了一种批量RL算法,其中仅使用固定的脱机数据集来学习有效策略,而不是与环境的在线交互。批量RL中的有限数据产生了在培训数据中不充分表示的状态/行动的价值估计中的固有不确定性。当我们的候选政策从生成数据的候选政策发散时,这导致特别严重的外推。我们建议通过两个直接的惩罚来减轻这个问题:减少这种分歧的政策限制和减少过于乐观估计的价值约束。在全面的32个连续动作批量RL基准测试中,我们的方法对最先进的方法进行了比较,无论如何收集离线数据如何。
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在无模型的深度加强学习(RL)算法中,利用嘈杂的值估计监督政策评估和优化对样品效率有害。由于这种噪声是异源的,因此可以在优化过程中使用基于不确定性的权重来缓解其效果。以前的方法依赖于采样的合奏,这不会捕获不确定性的所有方面。我们对在RL的嘈杂监管中提供了对不确定性的不确定性来源的系统分析,并引入了诸如将概率集合和批处理逆差加权组合的贝叶斯框架的逆差异RL。我们提出了一种方法,其中两个互补的不确定性估计方法占Q值和环境随机性,以更好地减轻嘈杂监督的负面影响。我们的结果表明,对离散和连续控制任务的采样效率方面显着改进。
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