This paper presents a game theoretic framework for participation and free-riding in federated learning (FL), and determines the Nash equilibrium strategies when FL is executed over wireless links. To support spectrum sensing for NextG communications, FL is used by clients, namely spectrum sensors with limited training datasets and computation resources, to train a wireless signal classifier while preserving privacy. In FL, a client may be free-riding, i.e., it does not participate in FL model updates, if the computation and transmission cost for FL participation is high, and receives the global model (learned by other clients) without incurring a cost. However, the free-riding behavior may potentially decrease the global accuracy due to lack of contribution to global model learning. This tradeoff leads to a non-cooperative game where each client aims to individually maximize its utility as the difference between the global model accuracy and the cost of FL participation. The Nash equilibrium strategies are derived for free-riding probabilities such that no client can unilaterally increase its utility given the strategies of its opponents remain the same. The free-riding probability increases with the FL participation cost and the number of clients, and a significant optimality gap exists in Nash equilibrium with respect to the joint optimization for all clients. The optimality gap increases with the number of clients and the maximum gap is evaluated as a function of the cost. These results quantify the impact of free-riding on the resilience of FL in NextG networks and indicate operational modes for FL participation.

This paper presents a game-theoretic framework to study the interactions of attack and defense for deep learning-based NextG signal classification. NextG systems such as the one envisioned for a massive number of IoT devices can employ deep neural networks (DNNs) for various tasks such as user equipment identification, physical layer authentication, and detection of incumbent users (such as in the Citizens Broadband Radio Service (CBRS) band). By training another DNN as the surrogate model, an adversary can launch an inference (exploratory) attack to learn the behavior of the victim model, predict successful operation modes (e.g., channel access), and jam them. A defense mechanism can increase the adversary's uncertainty by introducing controlled errors in the victim model's decisions (i.e., poisoning the adversary's training data). This defense is effective against an attack but reduces the performance when there is no attack. The interactions between the defender and the adversary are formulated as a non-cooperative game, where the defender selects the probability of defending or the defense level itself (i.e., the ratio of falsified decisions) and the adversary selects the probability of attacking. The defender's objective is to maximize its reward (e.g., throughput or transmission success ratio), whereas the adversary's objective is to minimize this reward and its attack cost. The Nash equilibrium strategies are determined as operation modes such that no player can unilaterally improve its utility given the other's strategy is fixed. A fictitious play is formulated for each player to play the game repeatedly in response to the empirical frequency of the opponent's actions. The performance in Nash equilibrium is compared to the fixed attack and defense cases, and the resilience of NextG signal classification against attacks is quantified.

GTFLAT, as a game theory-based add-on, addresses an important research question: How can a federated learning algorithm achieve better performance and training efficiency by setting more effective adaptive weights for averaging in the model aggregation phase? The main objectives for the ideal method of answering the question are: (1) empowering federated learning algorithms to reach better performance in fewer communication rounds, notably in the face of heterogeneous scenarios, and last but not least, (2) being easy to use alongside the state-of-the-art federated learning algorithms as a new module. To this end, GTFLAT models the averaging task as a strategic game among active users. Then it proposes a systematic solution based on the population game and evolutionary dynamics to find the equilibrium. In contrast with existing approaches that impose the weights on the participants, GTFLAT concludes a self-enforcement agreement among clients in a way that none of them is motivated to deviate from it individually. The results reveal that, on average, using GTFLAT increases the top-1 test accuracy by 1.38%, while it needs 21.06% fewer communication rounds to reach the accuracy.

联邦学习（FL）变得流行，并在训练大型机器学习（ML）模型的情况下表现出很大的潜力，而不会使所有者的原始数据曝光。在FL中，数据所有者可以根据其本地数据培训ML模型，并且仅将模型更新发送到模型更新，而不是原始数据到模型所有者进行聚合。为了提高模型准确性和培训完成时间的学习绩效，招募足够的参与者至关重要。同时，数据所有者是理性的，可能不愿意由于资源消耗而参与协作学习过程。为了解决这些问题，最近有各种作品旨在激励数据业主贡献其资源。在本文中，我们为文献中提出的经济和游戏理论方法提供了全面的审查，以设计刺激数据业主参加流程培训过程的各种计划。特别是，我们首先在激励机制设计中常用的佛罗里达州的基础和背景，经济理论。然后，我们审查博弈理论和经济方法应用于FL的激励机制的应用。最后，我们突出了一些开放的问题和未来关于FL激励机制设计的研究方向。

Federated learning (FL) is a collaborative machine learning framework that requires different clients (e.g., Internet of Things devices) to participate in the machine learning model training process by training and uploading their local models to an FL server in each global iteration. Upon receiving the local models from all the clients, the FL server generates a global model by aggregating the received local models. This traditional FL process may suffer from the straggler problem in heterogeneous client settings, where the FL server has to wait for slow clients to upload their local models in each global iteration, thus increasing the overall training time. One of the solutions is to set up a deadline and only the clients that can upload their local models before the deadline would be selected in the FL process. This solution may lead to a slow convergence rate and global model overfitting issues due to the limited client selection. In this paper, we propose the Latency awarE Semi-synchronous client Selection and mOdel aggregation for federated learNing (LESSON) method that allows all the clients to participate in the whole FL process but with different frequencies. That is, faster clients would be scheduled to upload their models more frequently than slow clients, thus resolving the straggler problem and accelerating the convergence speed, while avoiding model overfitting. Also, LESSON is capable of adjusting the tradeoff between the model accuracy and convergence rate by varying the deadline. Extensive simulations have been conducted to compare the performance of LESSON with the other two baseline methods, i.e., FedAvg and FedCS. The simulation results demonstrate that LESSON achieves faster convergence speed than FedAvg and FedCS, and higher model accuracy than FedCS.

由于对个人数据隐私的不断增长和当地客户的迅速增长的数据量，Federated Learnated（FL）的动机已成为新的机器学习设置。 FL系统由中央参数服务器和多个本地客户端组成。它将数据保留在本地客户端，并通过共享本地学到的模型参数来学习集中式模型。不需要共享本地数据，并且可以很好地保护隐私。然而，由于它是模型而不是共享的原始数据，因此系统可以暴露于恶意客户端发起的中毒模型攻击。此外，由于服务器上没有本地客户端数据，因此确定恶意客户端是一项挑战。此外，仍然可以使用上载模型估算客户本地数据，从而导致隐私披露。在这项工作中，我们首先提出了一个基于模型更新的联合平均算法，以防御拜占庭式攻击，例如加性噪声攻击和弹药攻击。提出了单个客户模型初始化方法，以通过隐藏各个本地机器学习模型来提供进一步的隐私保护。在结合这两个方案时，隐私和安全性都可以有效地增强。当没有攻击时，提出的方案被证明在非IID数据分布下实验会收敛。在拜占庭式攻击下，提议的方案的表现要比基于经典模型的FedAvg算法要好得多。

联合学习（FL）是一种有效的分布式机器学习范式，以隐私的方式采用私人数据集。 FL的主要挑战是，END设备通常具有各种计算和通信功能，其培训数据并非独立且分布相同（非IID）。由于在移动网络中此类设备的通信带宽和不稳定的可用性，因此只能在每个回合中选择最终设备（也称为参与者或客户端的参与者或客户端）。因此，使用有效的参与者选择方案来最大程度地提高FL的性能，包括最终模型的准确性和训练时间，这一点至关重要。在本文中，我们对FL的参与者选择技术进行了评论。首先，我们介绍FL并突出参与者选择期间的主要挑战。然后，我们根据其解决方案来审查现有研究并将其分类。最后，根据我们对该主题领域最新的分析的分析，我们为FL的参与者选择提供了一些未来的指示。

联合学习（FL）是一个有前途的分布式框架，用于协作人工智能模型培训，同时保护用户隐私。引起大量研究关注的引导组件是激励机制刺激佛罗里达用户协作的设计。大多数作品采用以经纪人为中心的方法来帮助中央运营商吸引参与者并进一步获得训练有素的模型。很少有作品认为参与者之间以参与者为中心的合作来追求其共同利益的FL模型，这会引起以经纪人FL的激励机制设计的显着差异。为了协调自私和异质参与者，我们提出了一个新颖的分析框架，以激励以参与者为中心的FL有效，有效的合作。具体而言，我们分别提出了两个新型游戏模型，用于贡献符合贡献的FL（COFL）和贡献感知的FL（CAFL），后者在其中实现了最低贡献阈值机制。我们进一步分析了COFL和CAFL游戏的NASH平衡的独特性和存在，并设计有效的算法以实现平衡溶液。广泛的绩效评估表明，COFL中存在自由骑行现象，通过采用CAFL模型具有优化的最低阈值，可以极大地缓解这种现象。

In recent years, mobile devices are equipped with increasingly advanced sensing and computing capabilities. Coupled with advancements in Deep Learning (DL), this opens up countless possibilities for meaningful applications, e.g., for medical purposes and in vehicular networks. Traditional cloudbased Machine Learning (ML) approaches require the data to be centralized in a cloud server or data center. However, this results in critical issues related to unacceptable latency and communication inefficiency. To this end, Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) has been proposed to bring intelligence closer to the edge, where data is produced. However, conventional enabling technologies for ML at mobile edge networks still require personal data to be shared with external parties, e.g., edge servers. Recently, in light of increasingly stringent data privacy legislations and growing privacy concerns, the concept of Federated Learning (FL) has been introduced. In FL, end devices use their local data to train an ML model required by the server. The end devices then send the model updates rather than raw data to the server for aggregation. FL can serve as an enabling technology in mobile edge networks since it enables the collaborative training of an ML model and also enables DL for mobile edge network optimization. However, in a large-scale and complex mobile edge network, heterogeneous devices with varying constraints are involved. This raises challenges of communication costs, resource allocation, and privacy and security in the implementation of FL at scale. In this survey, we begin with an introduction to the background and fundamentals of FL. Then, we highlight the aforementioned challenges of FL implementation and review existing solutions. Furthermore, we present the applications of FL for mobile edge network optimization. Finally, we discuss the important challenges and future research directions in FL.

联邦学习（FL）的最新进展为大规模的分布式客户带来了大规模的机器学习机会，具有绩效和数据隐私保障。然而，大多数当前的工作只关注FL中央控制器的兴趣，忽略了客户的利益。这可能导致不公平，阻碍客户积极参与学习过程并损害整个流动系统的可持续性。因此，在佛罗里达州确保公平的主题吸引了大量的研究兴趣。近年来，已经提出了各种公平知识的FL（FAFL）方法，以努力实现不同观点的流体公平。但是，没有全面的调查，帮助读者能够深入了解这种跨学科领域。本文旨在提供这样的调查。通过审查本领域现有文献所采用的基本和简化的假设，提出了涵盖FL的主要步骤的FAFL方法的分类，包括客户选择，优化，贡献评估和激励分配。此外，我们讨论了实验评估FAFL方法表现的主要指标，并建议了一些未来的未来研究方向。

This study considers a federated learning setup where cost-sensitive and strategic agents train a learning model with a server. During each round, each agent samples a minibatch of training data and sends his gradient update. As an increasing function of his minibatch size choice, the agent incurs a cost associated with the data collection, gradient computation and communication. The agents have the freedom to choose their minibatch size and may even opt out from training. To reduce his cost, an agent may diminish his minibatch size, which may also cause an increase in the noise level of the gradient update. The server can offer rewards to compensate the agents for their costs and to incentivize their participation but she lacks the capability of validating the true minibatch sizes of the agents. To tackle this challenge, the proposed reward mechanism evaluates the quality of each agent's gradient according to the its distance to a reference which is constructed from the gradients provided by other agents. It is shown that the proposed reward mechanism has a cooperative Nash equilibrium in which the agents determine the minibatch size choices according to the requests of the server.

由于机器学习（ML）模型变得越来越复杂，其中一个中央挑战是它们在规模的部署，使得公司和组织可以通过人工智能（AI）创造价值。 ML中的新兴范式是一种联合方法，其中学习模型部分地将其交付给一组异构剂，允许代理与自己的数据一起培训模型。然而，模型的估值问题，以及数据/模型的协作培训和交易的激励问题，在文献中获得了有限的待遇。本文提出了一种在基于信任区块基网络上交易的ML模型交易的新生态系统。买方可以获得ML市场的兴趣模型，兴趣的卖家将本地计算花在他们的数据上，以增强该模型的质量。在这样做时，考虑了本地数据与训练型型号的质量之间的比例关系，并且通过分布式数据福价（DSV）估计了销售课程中的训练中的数据的估值。同时，通过分布式分区技术（DLT）提供整个交易过程的可信度。对拟议方法的广泛实验评估显示出具有竞争力的运行时间绩效，在参与者的激励方面下降了15 \％。

Federated learning (FL) has been proposed as a privacy-preserving approach in distributed machine learning. A federated learning architecture consists of a central server and a number of clients that have access to private, potentially sensitive data. Clients are able to keep their data in their local machines and only share their locally trained model's parameters with a central server that manages the collaborative learning process. FL has delivered promising results in real-life scenarios, such as healthcare, energy, and finance. However, when the number of participating clients is large, the overhead of managing the clients slows down the learning. Thus, client selection has been introduced as a strategy to limit the number of communicating parties at every step of the process. Since the early na\"{i}ve random selection of clients, several client selection methods have been proposed in the literature. Unfortunately, given that this is an emergent field, there is a lack of a taxonomy of client selection methods, making it hard to compare approaches. In this paper, we propose a taxonomy of client selection in Federated Learning that enables us to shed light on current progress in the field and identify potential areas of future research in this promising area of machine learning.

智能仪表测量值虽然对于准确的需求预测至关重要，但仍面临一些缺点，包括消费者的隐私，数据泄露问题，仅举几例。最近的文献探索了联合学习（FL）作为一种有前途的隐私机器学习替代方案，该替代方案可以协作学习模型，而无需将私人原始数据暴露于短期负载预测中。尽管有着美德，但标准FL仍然容易受到棘手的网络威胁，称为拜占庭式攻击，这是由错误和/或恶意客户进行的。因此，为了提高联邦联邦短期负载预测对拜占庭威胁的鲁棒性，我们开发了一个最先进的基于私人安全的FL框架，以确保单个智能电表的数据的隐私，同时保护FL的安全性模型和架构。我们提出的框架利用了通过符号随机梯度下降（SignsGD）算法的梯度量化的想法，在本地模型培训后，客户仅将梯度的“符号”传输到控制中心。当我们通过涉及一组拜占庭攻击模型的基准神经网络的实验突出显示时，我们提出的方法会非常有效地减轻此类威胁，从而优于常规的FED-SGD模型。

A fundamental challenge to providing edge-AI services is the need for a machine learning (ML) model that achieves personalization (i.e., to individual clients) and generalization (i.e., to unseen data) properties concurrently. Existing techniques in federated learning (FL) have encountered a steep tradeoff between these objectives and impose large computational requirements on edge devices during training and inference. In this paper, we propose SplitGP, a new split learning solution that can simultaneously capture generalization and personalization capabilities for efficient inference across resource-constrained clients (e.g., mobile/IoT devices). Our key idea is to split the full ML model into client-side and server-side components, and impose different roles to them: the client-side model is trained to have strong personalization capability optimized to each client's main task, while the server-side model is trained to have strong generalization capability for handling all clients' out-of-distribution tasks. We analytically characterize the convergence behavior of SplitGP, revealing that all client models approach stationary points asymptotically. Further, we analyze the inference time in SplitGP and provide bounds for determining model split ratios. Experimental results show that SplitGP outperforms existing baselines by wide margins in inference time and test accuracy for varying amounts of out-of-distribution samples.

联合学习（FL）是AI的新出现的分支，它有助于边缘设备进行协作训练全球机器学习模型，而无需集中数据并默认使用隐私。但是，尽管进步显着，但这种范式面临着各种挑战。具体而言，在大规模部署中，客户异质性是影响培训质量（例如准确性，公平性和时间）的规范。此外，这些电池约束设备的能源消耗在很大程度上尚未探索，这是FL的广泛采用的限制。为了解决这个问题，我们开发了EAFL，这是一种能源感知的FL选择方法，该方法考虑了能源消耗以最大程度地提高异质目标设备的参与。 \ Scheme是一种功能感知的培训算法，该算法与电池电量更高的挑选客户结合使用，并具有最大化系统效率的能力。我们的设计共同最大程度地减少了临界时间，并最大程度地提高了其余的电池电池水平。 \方案将测试模型的精度提高了高达85 \％，并将客户的辍学率降低了2.45 $ \ times $。

联合学习是用于培训分布式，敏感数据的培训模型的流行策略，同时保留了数据隐私。先前的工作确定了毒害数据或模型的联合学习方案的一系列安全威胁。但是，联合学习是一个网络系统，客户与服务器之间的通信对于学习任务绩效起着至关重要的作用。我们强调了沟通如何在联邦学习中引入另一个漏洞表面，并研究网络级对手对训练联合学习模型的影响。我们表明，从精心选择的客户中删除网络流量的攻击者可以大大降低目标人群的模型准确性。此外，我们表明，来自少数客户的协调中毒运动可以扩大降低攻击。最后，我们开发了服务器端防御，通过识别和上采样的客户可能对目标准确性做出积极贡献，从而减轻了攻击的影响。我们在三个数据集上全面评估了我们的攻击和防御，假设具有网络部分可见性的加密通信渠道和攻击者。

Federated Learning (FL) is a machine learning paradigm that enables the training of a shared global model across distributed clients while keeping the training data local. While most prior work on designing systems for FL has focused on using stateful always running components, recent work has shown that components in an FL system can greatly benefit from the usage of serverless computing and Function-as-a-Service technologies. To this end, distributed training of models with severless FL systems can be more resource-efficient and cheaper than conventional FL systems. However, serverless FL systems still suffer from the presence of stragglers, i.e., slow clients due to their resource and statistical heterogeneity. While several strategies have been proposed for mitigating stragglers in FL, most methodologies do not account for the particular characteristics of serverless environments, i.e., cold-starts, performance variations, and the ephemeral stateless nature of the function instances. Towards this, we propose FedLesScan, a novel clustering-based semi-asynchronous training strategy, specifically tailored for serverless FL. FedLesScan dynamically adapts to the behaviour of clients and minimizes the effect of stragglers on the overall system. We implement our strategy by extending an open-source serverless FL system called FedLess. Moreover, we comprehensively evaluate our strategy using the 2nd generation Google Cloud Functions with four datasets and varying percentages of stragglers. Results from our experiments show that compared to other approaches FedLesScan reduces training time and cost by an average of 8% and 20% respectively while utilizing clients better with an average increase in the effective update ratio of 17.75%.

本文建议使用通信管道来提高移动边缘计算应用程序中联合学习的无线频谱利用效率和收敛速度。由于无线子渠道有限，在联合学习算法的每次迭代中，总计客户端的一部分。另一方面，计划的客户等待最慢的客户端完成计算。我们建议首先根据客户在计算联合学习模型的本地梯度所需的时间将客户聚集。然后，我们安排了来自所有群集的客户的混合，以管道的方式发送其本地更新。这样，更多的客户可以参与每次迭代，而不仅仅是等待较慢的客户完成计算的速度。虽然单个迭代的持续时间没有改变，但提出的方法可以显着减少达到目标准确性所需的迭代次数。我们为在不同的设置下提供了最佳客户群聚类的通用公式，并在分析上得出了一种有效的算法来获得最佳解决方案。我们还提供了数值结果，以证明针对不同数据集和深度学习体系结构所提出的方法的收益。

A key feature of federated learning (FL) is to preserve the data privacy of end users. However, there still exist potential privacy leakage in exchanging gradients under FL. As a result, recent research often explores the differential privacy (DP) approaches to add noises to the computing results to address privacy concerns with low overheads, which however degrade the model performance. In this paper, we strike the balance of data privacy and efficiency by utilizing the pervasive social connections between users. Specifically, we propose SCFL, a novel Social-aware Clustered Federated Learning scheme, where mutually trusted individuals can freely form a social cluster and aggregate their raw model updates (e.g., gradients) inside each cluster before uploading to the cloud for global aggregation. By mixing model updates in a social group, adversaries can only eavesdrop the social-layer combined results, but not the privacy of individuals. We unfold the design of SCFL in three steps. \emph{i) Stable social cluster formation. Considering users' heterogeneous training samples and data distributions, we formulate the optimal social cluster formation problem as a federation game and devise a fair revenue allocation mechanism to resist free-riders. ii) Differentiated trust-privacy mapping}. For the clusters with low mutual trust, we design a customizable privacy preservation mechanism to adaptively sanitize participants' model updates depending on social trust degrees. iii) Distributed convergence}. A distributed two-sided matching algorithm is devised to attain an optimized disjoint partition with Nash-stable convergence. Experiments on Facebook network and MNIST/CIFAR-10 datasets validate that our SCFL can effectively enhance learning utility, improve user payoff, and enforce customizable privacy protection.