We present a new algorithm for nding low complexity neural networks with high generalization capability. The algorithm searches for a \ at" minimum of the error function. A at minimum is a large connected region in weight-space where the error remains approximately constant. An MDL-based, Bayesian argument suggests that at minima correspond to \simple" networks and low expected over tting. The argument is based on a Gibbs algorithm variant and a novel way of splitting generalization error into under tting and over tting error. Unlike many previous approaches, ours does not require Gaussian assumptions and does not depend on a \good" weight prior { instead we have a prior over input/output functions, thus taking into account net architecture and training set. Although our algorithm requires the computation of second order derivatives, it has backprop's order of complexity. Automatically, it e ectively prunes units, weights, and input lines. Various experiments with feedforward and recurrent nets are described. In an application to stock market prediction, at minimum search outperforms (1) conventional backprop, (2) weight decay, (3) \optimal brain surgeon" / \optimal brain damage". We also provide pseudo code of the algorithm (omitted from the NC-version).The appendix presents a detailed theoretical justi cation of our approach. Using a variant of the Gibbs algorithm, appendix A.1 de nes generalization, under tting and over tting error in a novel way. By de ning an appropriate prior over input-output functions, we postulate that the most probable network is a \ at" one. Appendix A.2 formally justi es the error function minimized by our algorithm. Appendix A.3 describes an e cient implementation of the algorithm. Appendix A.4 nally presents pseudo code of the algorithm. TASK / ARCHITECTURE / BOXESGeneralization task. The task is to approximate an unknown function f X Y mapping a nite set of possible inputs X R N to a nite set of possible outputs Y R K . A data set D is obtained from f (see appendix A.1). All training information is given by a nite set D 0 D. D 0 is called the training set. The pth element of D 0 is denoted by an input/target pair (x p ; y p ).Architecture/ Net functions. For simplicity, we will focus on a standard feedforward net (but in the experiments, we will use recurrent nets as well). The net has N input units, K output units, L weights, and di erentiable activation functions. It maps input vectors x 2 R N to output vectors o(w; x) 2 R K , where w is the L-dimensional weight vector, and the weight on the connection from unit j to i is denoted w ij . The net function induced by w is denoted net(w): for x 2 R N , net(w)(x) = o(w; x) = o 1 (w; x); o 2 (w; x); : : : ; o K 1 (w; x); o K (w; x) , where o i (w; x) denotes the i-th component of o(w; x), corresponding to output unit i. Training error. We use squared error E(net(w); D 0 ) := P (xp;yp)2D0 k y p o(w; x p ) k 2 , where k : k denotes the Euclidean norm.Tolerable error. To

Learning to store information over extended time intervals via recurrent backpropagation takes a very long time, mostly due to insu cient, decaying error back ow. We brie y review Hochreiter's 1991 analysis of this problem, then address it by introducing a novel, e cient, gradient-based method called \Long Short-Term Memory" (LSTM). Truncating the gradient where this does not do harm, LSTM can learn to bridge minimal time lags in excess of 1000 discrete time steps by enforcing constant error ow through \constant error carrousels" within special units. Multiplicative gate units learn to open and close access to the constant error ow. LSTM is local in space and time; its computational complexity per time step and weight is O(1). Our experiments with arti cial data involve local, distributed, real-valued, and noisy pattern representations. In comparisons with RTRL, BPTT, Recurrent Cascade-Correlation, Elman nets, and Neural Sequence Chunking, LSTM leads to many more successful runs, and learns much faster. LSTM also solves complex, arti cial long time lag tasks that have never been solved by previous recurrent network algorithms.to solve long time lag problems. (2) It has fully connected second-order sigma-pi units, while the LSTM architecture's MUs are used only to gate access to constant error ow. (3) Watrous and Kuhn's algorithm costs O(W 2 ) operations per time step, ours only O(W), where W is the number of weights. See also Miller and Giles (1993) for additional work on MUs.Simple weight guessing. To avoid long time lag problems of gradient-based approaches we may simply randomly initialize all network weights until the resulting net happens to classify all training sequences correctly. In fact, recently we discovered (Schmidhuber and Hochreiter 1996, 1997 that simple weight guessing solves many of the problems in , Miller and Giles 1993, Lin et al. 1995 faster than the algorithms proposed therein. This does not mean that weight guessing is a good algorithm. It just means that the problems are very simple. More realistic tasks require either many free parameters (e.g., input weights) or high weight precision (e.g., for continuous-valued parameters), such that guessing becomes completely infeasible.

Multilayer Neural Networks trained with the backpropagation algorithm constitute the best example of a successful Gradient-Based Learning technique. Given an appropriate network architecture, Gradient-Based Learning algorithms can be used to synthesize a complex decision surface that can classify high-dimensional patterns such as handwritten characters, with minimal preprocessing. This paper reviews various methods applied to handwritten character recognition and compares them on a standard handwritten digit recognition task. Convolutional Neural Networks, that are specifically designed to deal with the variability of 2D shapes, are shown to outperform all other techniques.Real-life document recognition systems are composed of multiple modules including eld extraction, segmentation, recognition, and language modeling. A new learning paradigm, called Graph Transformer Networks (GTN), allows such multi-module systems to be trained globally using Gradient-Based methods so as to minimize an overall performance measure.Two systems for on-line handwriting recognition are described. Experiments demonstrate the advantage of global training, and the exibility of Graph Transformer Networks.A Graph Transformer Network for reading bank check is also described. It uses Convolutional Neural Network character recognizers combined with global training techniques to provides record accuracy on business and personal checks. It is deployed commercially and reads several million checks per day.

这项正在进行的工作旨在为统计学习提供统一的介绍，从诸如GMM和HMM等经典模型到现代神经网络（如VAE和扩散模型）缓慢地构建。如今，有许多互联网资源可以孤立地解释这一点或新的机器学习算法，但是它们并没有（也不能在如此简短的空间中）将这些算法彼此连接起来，或者与统计模型的经典文献相连现代算法出现了。同样明显缺乏的是一个单一的符号系统，尽管对那些已经熟悉材料的人（如这些帖子的作者）不满意，但对新手的入境造成了重大障碍。同样，我的目的是将各种模型（尽可能）吸收到一个用于推理和学习的框架上，表明（以及为什么）如何以最小的变化将一个模型更改为另一个模型（其中一些是新颖的，另一些是文献中的）。某些背景当然是必要的。我以为读者熟悉基本的多变量计算，概率和统计以及线性代数。这本书的目标当然不是​​完整性，而是从基本知识到过去十年中极强大的新模型的直线路径或多或少。然后，目标是补充而不是替换，诸如Bishop的\ emph {模式识别和机器学习}之类的综合文本，该文本现在已经15岁了。

A quantitative and practical Bayesian framework is described for learning of mappings in feedforward networks. The framework makes possible (1) objective comparisons between solutions using alternative network architectures, (2) objective stopping rules for network pruning or growing procedures, (3) objective choice of magnitude and type of weight decay terms or additive regularizers (for penalizing large weights, etc.), (4) a measure of the effective number of well-determined parameters in a model, (5) quantified estimates of the error bars on network parameters and on network output, and (6) objective comparisons with alternative learning and interpolation models such as splines and radial basis functions. The Bayesian "evidence" automatically embodies "Occam's razor,'' penalizing overflexible and overcomplex models.The Bayesian approach helps detect poor underlying assumptions in learning models. For learning models well matched to a problem, a good correlation between generalization ability and the Bayesian evidence is obtained.This paper makes use of the Bayesian framework for regularization and model comparison described in the companion paper "Bayesian Interpolation" (MacKay 1992a). This framework is due to Gull and Skilling (Gull 1989). The Gaps in BackpropThere are many knobs on the black box of "backprop" [learning by backpropagation of errors (Rumelhart et al. 198611. Generally these knobs are set by rules of thumb, trial and error, and the use of reserved test data to assess generalization ability (or more sophisticated cross-validation). The knobs fall into two classes: (1) parameters that change the effective learning model, for example, number of hidden units, and weight decay

这是一门专门针对STEM学生开发的介绍性机器学习课程。我们的目标是为有兴趣的读者提供基础知识，以在自己的项目中使用机器学习，并将自己熟悉术语作为进一步阅读相关文献的基础。在这些讲义中，我们讨论受监督，无监督和强化学习。注释从没有神经网络的机器学习方法的说明开始，例如原理分析，T-SNE，聚类以及线性回归和线性分类器。我们继续介绍基本和先进的神经网络结构，例如密集的进料和常规神经网络，经常性的神经网络，受限的玻尔兹曼机器，（变性）自动编码器，生成的对抗性网络。讨论了潜在空间表示的解释性问题，并使用梦和对抗性攻击的例子。最后一部分致力于加强学习，我们在其中介绍了价值功能和政策学习的基本概念。

Variational methods have been previously explored as a tractable approximation to Bayesian inference for neural networks. However the approaches proposed so far have only been applicable to a few simple network architectures. This paper introduces an easy-to-implement stochastic variational method (or equivalently, minimum description length loss function) that can be applied to most neural networks. Along the way it revisits several common regularisers from a variational perspective. It also provides a simple pruning heuristic that can both drastically reduce the number of network weights and lead to improved generalisation. Experimental results are provided for a hierarchical multidimensional recurrent neural network applied to the TIMIT speech corpus.

深度学习在广泛的AI应用方面取得了有希望的结果。较大的数据集和模型一致地产生更好的性能。但是，我们一般花费更长的培训时间，以更多的计算和沟通。在本调查中，我们的目标是在模型精度和模型效率方面提供关于大规模深度学习优化的清晰草图。我们调查最常用于优化的算法，详细阐述了大批量培训中出现的泛化差距的可辩论主题，并审查了解决通信开销并减少内存足迹的SOTA策略。

We propose an efficient method for approximating natural gradient descent in neural networks which we call Kronecker-factored Approximate Curvature (K-FAC). K-FAC is based on an efficiently invertible approximation of a neural network's Fisher information matrix which is neither diagonal nor low-rank, and in some cases is completely non-sparse. It is derived by approximating various large blocks of the Fisher (corresponding to entire layers) as being the Kronecker product of two much smaller matrices. While only several times more expensive to compute than the plain stochastic gradient, the updates produced by K-FAC make much more progress optimizing the objective, which results in an algorithm that can be much faster than stochastic gradient descent with momentum in practice. And unlike some previously proposed approximate natural-gradient/Newton methods which use high-quality non-diagonal curvature matrices (such as Hessian-free optimization), K-FAC works very well in highly stochastic optimization regimes. This is because the cost of storing and inverting K-FAC's approximation to the curvature matrix does not depend on the amount of data used to estimate it, which is a feature typically associated only with diagonal or low-rank approximations to the curvature matrix.

虽然已知辍学是一种成功的正规化技术，但仍缺乏对导致成功的机制的见解。我们介绍了\ emph {重量膨胀}的概念，这增加了由权重协方差矩阵的列或行载体跨越的并行曲线的签名体积，并表明重量膨胀是增加PAC中概括的有效手段。 - bayesian设置。我们提供了一个理论上的论点，即辍学会导致体重扩大和对辍学和体重扩张之间相关性的广泛经验支持。为了支持我们的假设，即可以将重量扩张视为增强的概括能力的\ emph {指示器}，而不仅仅是副产品，我们还研究了实现重量扩展的其他方法（resp。\ contraction \ contraction ），发现它们通常会导致（分别\ \降低）的概括能力。这表明辍学是一种有吸引力的正规化器，因为它是一种用于获得体重扩展的计算廉价方法。这种洞察力证明了辍学者作为正规化器的作用，同时为确定正规化器铺平了道路，这些正规化器有望通过体重扩张来改善概括。

The success of machine learning algorithms generally depends on data representation, and we hypothesize that this is because different representations can entangle and hide more or less the different explanatory factors of variation behind the data. Although specific domain knowledge can be used to help design representations, learning with generic priors can also be used, and the quest for AI is motivating the design of more powerful representation-learning algorithms implementing such priors. This paper reviews recent work in the area of unsupervised feature learning and deep learning, covering advances in probabilistic models, auto-encoders, manifold learning, and deep networks. This motivates longer-term unanswered questions about the appropriate objectives for learning good representations, for computing representations (i.e., inference), and the geometrical connections between representation learning, density estimation and manifold learning.

大型神经回路的全面突触接线图的出现已经创造了连接组学领域，并引起了许多开放研究问题。一个问题是，鉴于其突触连接矩阵，是否可以重建存储在神经元网络中的信息。在这里，我们通过确定在特定的吸引力网络模型中可以解决这种推理问题何时解决这个问题，并提供一种实用算法来解决这个问题。该算法基于从统计物理学到进行近似贝叶斯推论的思想，并且可以进行精确的分析。我们在三种不同模型上研究了它的性能，将算法与PCA等标准算法进行比较，并探讨了从突触连通性中重建存储模式的局限性。

深神经网络（DNN）是用于压缩和蒸馏信息的强大工具。由于它们的规模和复杂性，通常涉及数十亿间相互作用的内部自由度，精确分析方法通常会缩短。这种情况下的共同策略是识别平均潜在的快速微观变量的不稳定行为的缓慢自由度。在这里，我们在训练结束时识别在过度参数化的深卷积神经网络（CNNS）中发生的尺度的分离。它意味着神经元预激活与几乎高斯的方式与确定性潜在内核一起波动。在对于具有无限许多频道的CNN来说，这些内核是惰性的，对于有限的CNNS，它们以分析的方式通过数据适应和学习数据。由此产生的深度学习的热力学理论产生了几种深度非线性CNN玩具模型的准确预测。此外，它还提供了新的分析和理解CNN的方法。

We propose a simultaneous learning and pruning algorithm capable of identifying and eliminating irrelevant structures in a neural network during the early stages of training. Thus, the computational cost of subsequent training iterations, besides that of inference, is considerably reduced. Our method, based on variational inference principles using Gaussian scale mixture priors on neural network weights, learns the variational posterior distribution of Bernoulli random variables multiplying the units/filters similarly to adaptive dropout. Our algorithm, ensures that the Bernoulli parameters practically converge to either 0 or 1, establishing a deterministic final network. We analytically derive a novel hyper-prior distribution over the prior parameters that is crucial for their optimal selection and leads to consistent pruning levels and prediction accuracy regardless of weight initialization or the size of the starting network. We prove the convergence properties of our algorithm establishing theoretical and practical pruning conditions. We evaluate the proposed algorithm on the MNIST and CIFAR-10 data sets and the commonly used fully connected and convolutional LeNet and VGG16 architectures. The simulations show that our method achieves pruning levels on par with state-of the-art methods for structured pruning, while maintaining better test-accuracy and more importantly in a manner robust with respect to network initialization and initial size.

这项调查的目的是介绍对深神经网络的近似特性的解释性回顾。具体而言，我们旨在了解深神经网络如何以及为什么要优于其他经典线性和非线性近似方法。这项调查包括三章。在第1章中，我们回顾了深层网络及其组成非线性结构的关键思想和概念。我们通过在解决回归和分类问题时将其作为优化问题来形式化神经网络问题。我们简要讨论用于解决优化问题的随机梯度下降算法以及用于解决优化问题的后传播公式，并解决了与神经网络性能相关的一些问题，包括选择激活功能，成本功能，过度适应问题和正则化。在第2章中，我们将重点转移到神经网络的近似理论上。我们首先介绍多项式近似中的密度概念，尤其是研究实现连续函数的Stone-WeierStrass定理。然后，在线性近似的框架内，我们回顾了馈电网络的密度和收敛速率的一些经典结果，然后在近似Sobolev函数中进行有关深网络复杂性的最新发展。在第3章中，利用非线性近似理论，我们进一步详细介绍了深度和近似网络与其他经典非线性近似方法相比的近似优势。

深度学习使用由其重量进行参数化的神经网络。通常通过调谐重量来直接最小化给定损耗功能来训练神经网络。在本文中，我们建议将权重重新参数转化为网络中各个节点的触发强度的目标。给定一组目标，可以计算使得发射强度最佳地满足这些目标的权重。有人认为，通过我们称之为级联解压缩的过程，使用培训的目标解决爆炸梯度的问题，并使损失功能表面更加光滑，因此导致更容易，培训更快，以及潜在的概括，神经网络。它还允许更容易地学习更深层次和经常性的网络结构。目标对重量的必要转换有额外的计算费用，这是在许多情况下可管理的。在目标空间中学习可以与现有的神经网络优化器相结合，以额外收益。实验结果表明了使用目标空间的速度，以及改进的泛化的示例，用于全连接的网络和卷积网络，以及调用和处理长时间序列的能力，并使用经常性网络进行自然语言处理。

This paper surveys the eld of reinforcement learning from a computer-science perspective. It is written to be accessible to researchers familiar with machine learning. Both the historical basis of the eld and a broad selection of current work are summarized. Reinforcement learning is the problem faced by an agent that learns behavior through trial-and-error interactions with a dynamic environment. The work described here has a resemblance to work in psychology, but di ers considerably in the details and in the use of the word \reinforcement." The paper discusses central issues of reinforcement learning, including trading o exploration and exploitation, establishing the foundations of the eld via Markov decision theory, learning from delayed reinforcement, constructing empirical models to accelerate learning, making use of generalization and hierarchy, and coping with hidden state. It concludes with a survey of some implemented systems and an assessment of the practical utility of current methods for reinforcement learning.

Large multilayer neural networks trained with backpropagation have recently achieved state-ofthe-art results in a wide range of problems. However, using backprop for neural net learning still has some disadvantages, e.g., having to tune a large number of hyperparameters to the data, lack of calibrated probabilistic predictions, and a tendency to overfit the training data. In principle, the Bayesian approach to learning neural networks does not have these problems. However, existing Bayesian techniques lack scalability to large dataset and network sizes. In this work we present a novel scalable method for learning Bayesian neural networks, called probabilistic backpropagation (PBP). Similar to classical backpropagation, PBP works by computing a forward propagation of probabilities through the network and then doing a backward computation of gradients. A series of experiments on ten real-world datasets show that PBP is significantly faster than other techniques, while offering competitive predictive abilities. Our experiments also show that PBP provides accurate estimates of the posterior variance on the network weights.

Consider the multivariate nonparametric regression model. It is shown that estimators based on sparsely connected deep neural networks with ReLU activation function and properly chosen network architecture achieve the minimax rates of convergence (up to log nfactors) under a general composition assumption on the regression function. The framework includes many well-studied structural constraints such as (generalized) additive models. While there is a lot of flexibility in the network architecture, the tuning parameter is the sparsity of the network. Specifically, we consider large networks with number of potential network parameters exceeding the sample size. The analysis gives some insights into why multilayer feedforward neural networks perform well in practice. Interestingly, for ReLU activation function the depth (number of layers) of the neural network architectures plays an important role and our theory suggests that for nonparametric regression, scaling the network depth with the sample size is natural. It is also shown that under the composition assumption wavelet estimators can only achieve suboptimal rates.

These notes were compiled as lecture notes for a course developed and taught at the University of the Southern California. They should be accessible to a typical engineering graduate student with a strong background in Applied Mathematics. The main objective of these notes is to introduce a student who is familiar with concepts in linear algebra and partial differential equations to select topics in deep learning. These lecture notes exploit the strong connections between deep learning algorithms and the more conventional techniques of computational physics to achieve two goals. First, they use concepts from computational physics to develop an understanding of deep learning algorithms. Not surprisingly, many concepts in deep learning can be connected to similar concepts in computational physics, and one can utilize this connection to better understand these algorithms. Second, several novel deep learning algorithms can be used to solve challenging problems in computational physics. Thus, they offer someone who is interested in modeling a physical phenomena with a complementary set of tools.