Large multilayer neural networks trained with backpropagation have recently achieved state-ofthe-art results in a wide range of problems. However, using backprop for neural net learning still has some disadvantages, e.g., having to tune a large number of hyperparameters to the data, lack of calibrated probabilistic predictions, and a tendency to overfit the training data. In principle, the Bayesian approach to learning neural networks does not have these problems. However, existing Bayesian techniques lack scalability to large dataset and network sizes. In this work we present a novel scalable method for learning Bayesian neural networks, called probabilistic backpropagation (PBP). Similar to classical backpropagation, PBP works by computing a forward propagation of probabilities through the network and then doing a backward computation of gradients. A series of experiments on ten real-world datasets show that PBP is significantly faster than other techniques, while offering competitive predictive abilities. Our experiments also show that PBP provides accurate estimates of the posterior variance on the network weights.

Compared to point estimates calculated by standard neural networks, Bayesian neural networks (BNN) provide probability distributions over the output predictions and model parameters, i.e., the weights. Training the weight distribution of a BNN, however, is more involved due to the intractability of the underlying Bayesian inference problem and thus, requires efficient approximations. In this paper, we propose a novel approach for BNN learning via closed-form Bayesian inference. For this purpose, the calculation of the predictive distribution of the output and the update of the weight distribution are treated as Bayesian filtering and smoothing problems, where the weights are modeled as Gaussian random variables. This allows closed-form expressions for training the network's parameters in a sequential/online fashion without gradient descent. We demonstrate our method on several UCI datasets and compare it to the state of the art.

隐式过程（IPS）代表一个灵活的框架，可用于描述各种模型，从贝叶斯神经网络，神经抽样器和数据生成器到许多其他模型。 IP还允许在功能空间上进行大致推断。公式的这种变化解决了参数空间的固有退化问题近似推断，即参数数量及其在大型模型中的强大依赖性。为此，文献中先前的作品试图采用IPS来设置先验并近似产生的后部。但是，这被证明是一项具有挑战性的任务。现有的方法可以调整先前的IP导致高斯预测分布，该分布未能捕获重要的数据模式。相比之下，通过使用另一个IP近似后验过程产生灵活预测分布的方法不能将先前的IP调整到观察到的数据中。我们在这里建议第一个可以实现这两个目标的方法。为此，我们依赖于先前IP的诱导点表示，就像在稀疏高斯过程中所做的那样。结果是一种可扩展的方法，用于与IP的近似推断，可以将先前的IP参数调整到数据中，并提供准确的非高斯预测分布。

从降压和嘈杂的测量值（例如MRI和低剂量计算机断层扫描（CT））中重建图像是数学上不良的反问题。我们提出了一种基于期望传播（EP）技术的易于使用的重建方法。我们将蒙特卡洛（MC）方法，马尔可夫链蒙特卡洛（MCMC）和乘数（ADMM）算法的交替方向方法纳入EP方法，以解决EP中遇到的棘手性问题。我们在复杂的贝叶斯模型上演示了图像重建的方法。我们的技术应用于伽马相机扫描中的图像。我们仅将EPMC，EP-MCMC，EP-ADMM方法与MCMC进行比较。指标是更好的图像重建，速度和参数估计。在真实和模拟数据中使用伽马相机成像进行的实验表明，我们提出的方法在计算上比MCMC昂贵，并且产生相对更好的图像重建。

贝叶斯神经网络具有潜在变量（BNN + LVS）通过明确建模模型不确定性（通过网络权重）和环境暂停（通过潜在输入噪声变量）来捕获预测的不确定性。在这项工作中，我们首先表明BNN + LV具有严重形式的非可识别性：可以在模型参数和潜在变量之间传输解释性，同时拟合数据。我们证明，在无限数据的极限中，网络权重和潜变量的后部模式从地面真理渐近地偏离。由于这种渐近偏差，传统的推理方法可以在实践中，产量参数概括不确定和不确定的不确定性。接下来，我们开发一种新推断过程，明确地减轻了训练期间不可识别性的影响，并产生高质量的预测以及不确定性估计。我们展示我们的推理方法在一系列合成和实际数据集中改善了基准方法。

隐式过程（IP）是高斯过程（GPS）的概括。 IP可能缺乏封闭形式的表达，但很容易采样。例子包括贝叶斯神经网络或神经抽样器。 IP可以用作功能的先验，从而产生具有良好预测不确定性估计值的灵活模型。基于IP的方法通常进行函数空间近似推断，从而克服了参数空间近似推断的一些困难。然而，所采用的近似值通常会限制最终模型的表现力，结果是\ emph {e.g。}，在高斯预测分布中，这可能是限制的。我们在这里提出了IPS的多层概括，称为“深层隐式”过程（DVIP）。这种概括与GPS上的深GPS相似，但是由于使用IPs作为潜在函数的先前分布，因此更灵活。我们描述了用于训练DVIP的可扩展变异推理算法，并表明它的表现优于先前的基于IP的方法和深度GPS。我们通过广泛的回归和分类实验来支持这些主张。我们还在大型数据集上评估了DVIP，最多可达数百万个数据实例，以说明其良好的可扩展性和性能。

贝叶斯范式有可能解决深度神经网络的核心问题，如校准和数据效率低差。唉，缩放贝叶斯推理到大量的空间通常需要限制近似。在这项工作中，我们表明它足以通过模型权重的小子集进行推动，以便获得准确的预测后断。另一个权重被保存为点估计。该子网推断框架使我们能够在这些子集上使用表现力，否则难以相容的后近近似。特别是，我们将子网线性化LAPLACE作为一种简单，可扩展的贝叶斯深度学习方法：我们首先使用线性化的拉普拉斯近似来获得所有重量的地图估计，然后在子网上推断出全协方差高斯后面。我们提出了一个子网选择策略，旨在最大限度地保护模型的预测性不确定性。经验上，我们的方法对整个网络的集合和较少的表达后近似进行了比较。

Kullback-Leibler（KL）差异广泛用于贝叶斯神经网络（BNNS）的变异推理。然而，KL差异具有无限性和不对称性等局限性。我们检查了更通用，有限和对称的詹森 - 香农（JS）差异。我们根据几何JS差异为BNN制定新的损失函数，并表明基于KL差异的常规损失函数是其特殊情况。我们以封闭形式的高斯先验评估拟议损失函数的差异部分。对于任何其他一般的先验，都可以使用蒙特卡洛近似值。我们提供了实施这两种情况的算法。我们证明所提出的损失函数提供了一个可以调整的附加参数，以控制正则化程度。我们得出了所提出的损失函数在高斯先验和后代的基于KL差异的损失函数更好的条件。我们证明了基于嘈杂的CIFAR数据集和有偏见的组织病理学数据集的最新基于KL差异的BNN的性能提高。

We propose a simultaneous learning and pruning algorithm capable of identifying and eliminating irrelevant structures in a neural network during the early stages of training. Thus, the computational cost of subsequent training iterations, besides that of inference, is considerably reduced. Our method, based on variational inference principles using Gaussian scale mixture priors on neural network weights, learns the variational posterior distribution of Bernoulli random variables multiplying the units/filters similarly to adaptive dropout. Our algorithm, ensures that the Bernoulli parameters practically converge to either 0 or 1, establishing a deterministic final network. We analytically derive a novel hyper-prior distribution over the prior parameters that is crucial for their optimal selection and leads to consistent pruning levels and prediction accuracy regardless of weight initialization or the size of the starting network. We prove the convergence properties of our algorithm establishing theoretical and practical pruning conditions. We evaluate the proposed algorithm on the MNIST and CIFAR-10 data sets and the commonly used fully connected and convolutional LeNet and VGG16 architectures. The simulations show that our method achieves pruning levels on par with state-of the-art methods for structured pruning, while maintaining better test-accuracy and more importantly in a manner robust with respect to network initialization and initial size.

收购用于监督学习的标签可能很昂贵。为了提高神经网络回归的样本效率，我们研究了活跃的学习方法，这些方法可以适应地选择未标记的数据进行标记。我们提出了一个框架，用于从（与网络相关的）基础内核，内核转换和选择方法中构造此类方法。我们的框架涵盖了许多基于神经网络的高斯过程近似以及非乘式方法的现有贝叶斯方法。此外，我们建议用草图的有限宽度神经切线核代替常用的最后层特征，并将它们与一种新型的聚类方法结合在一起。为了评估不同的方法，我们引入了一个由15个大型表格回归数据集组成的开源基准。我们所提出的方法的表现优于我们的基准测试上的最新方法，缩放到大数据集，并在不调整网络体系结构或培训代码的情况下开箱即用。我们提供开源代码，包括所有内核，内核转换和选择方法的有效实现，并可用于复制我们的结果。

现代深度学习方法构成了令人难以置信的强大工具，以解决无数的挑战问题。然而，由于深度学习方法作为黑匣子运作，因此与其预测相关的不确定性往往是挑战量化。贝叶斯统计数据提供了一种形式主义来理解和量化与深度神经网络预测相关的不确定性。本教程概述了相关文献和完整的工具集，用于设计，实施，列车，使用和评估贝叶斯神经网络，即使用贝叶斯方法培训的随机人工神经网络。

We propose SWA-Gaussian (SWAG), a simple, scalable, and general purpose approach for uncertainty representation and calibration in deep learning. Stochastic Weight Averaging (SWA), which computes the first moment of stochastic gradient descent (SGD) iterates with a modified learning rate schedule, has recently been shown to improve generalization in deep learning. With SWAG, we fit a Gaussian using the SWA solution as the first moment and a low rank plus diagonal covariance also derived from the SGD iterates, forming an approximate posterior distribution over neural network weights; we then sample from this Gaussian distribution to perform Bayesian model averaging. We empirically find that SWAG approximates the shape of the true posterior, in accordance with results describing the stationary distribution of SGD iterates. Moreover, we demonstrate that SWAG performs well on a wide variety of tasks, including out of sample detection, calibration, and transfer learning, in comparison to many popular alternatives including MC dropout, KFAC Laplace, SGLD, and temperature scaling.

我们制定自然梯度变推理（VI），期望传播（EP），和后线性化（PL）作为牛顿法用于优化贝叶斯后验分布的参数扩展。这种观点明确地把数值优化框架下的推理算法。我们表明，通用近似牛顿法从优化文献，即高斯 - 牛顿和准牛顿方法（例如，该BFGS算法），仍然是这种“贝叶斯牛顿”框架下有效。这导致了一套这些都保证以产生半正定协方差矩阵，不像标准VI和EP新颖算法。我们统一的观点提供了新的见解各种推理方案之间的连接。所有提出的方法适用于具有高斯事先和非共轭的可能性，这是我们与（疏）高斯过程和状态空间模型展示任何模型。

We marry ideas from deep neural networks and approximate Bayesian inference to derive a generalised class of deep, directed generative models, endowed with a new algorithm for scalable inference and learning. Our algorithm introduces a recognition model to represent an approximate posterior distribution and uses this for optimisation of a variational lower bound. We develop stochastic backpropagation -rules for gradient backpropagation through stochastic variables -and derive an algorithm that allows for joint optimisation of the parameters of both the generative and recognition models. We demonstrate on several real-world data sets that by using stochastic backpropagation and variational inference, we obtain models that are able to generate realistic samples of data, allow for accurate imputations of missing data, and provide a useful tool for high-dimensional data visualisation.

我们有兴趣私有化近似后部推理算法，称为期望传播（EP）。 EP通过迭代地改进到局部可能性的近似近似后，并且已知提供比变差推断（VI）的更好的后不确定性。但是，使用EP对于大规模数据集在内存要求方面对挑战施加了挑战，因为它需要维护存储器中的每个局部近似值。为了克服这个问题，提出了随机期望繁殖（SEP），这仅考虑了一个独特的局部因素，捕获每个可能性术语对后后的平均效果，并以类似于EP的方式改进它。在隐私方面，SEP比EP更具易行，因为在一个因素的每个精炼步骤中，其余因子被固定到相同的值，并且不依赖于EP中的其他数据点，这使得敏感性分析成为易敏感性分析。我们在差异私有随机期望繁殖（DP-SEP）下的后验估计中提供了对隐私准确性权衡的理论分析。此外，我们展示了我们的DP-SEP算法在不同水平的保证隐私的后估计的质量方面评估的综合性和现实数据集。

We investigate a local reparameterizaton technique for greatly reducing the variance of stochastic gradients for variational Bayesian inference (SGVB) of a posterior over model parameters, while retaining parallelizability. This local reparameterization translates uncertainty about global parameters into local noise that is independent across datapoints in the minibatch. Such parameterizations can be trivially parallelized and have variance that is inversely proportional to the minibatch size, generally leading to much faster convergence. Additionally, we explore a connection with dropout: Gaussian dropout objectives correspond to SGVB with local reparameterization, a scale-invariant prior and proportionally fixed posterior variance. Our method allows inference of more flexibly parameterized posteriors; specifically, we propose variational dropout, a generalization of Gaussian dropout where the dropout rates are learned, often leading to better models. The method is demonstrated through several experiments.

Deep learning tools have gained tremendous attention in applied machine learning. However such tools for regression and classification do not capture model uncertainty. In comparison, Bayesian models offer a mathematically grounded framework to reason about model uncertainty, but usually come with a prohibitive computational cost. In this paper we develop a new theoretical framework casting dropout training in deep neural networks (NNs) as approximate Bayesian inference in deep Gaussian processes. A direct result of this theory gives us tools to model uncertainty with dropout NNsextracting information from existing models that has been thrown away so far. This mitigates the problem of representing uncertainty in deep learning without sacrificing either computational complexity or test accuracy. We perform an extensive study of the properties of dropout's uncertainty. Various network architectures and nonlinearities are assessed on tasks of regression and classification, using MNIST as an example. We show a considerable improvement in predictive log-likelihood and RMSE compared to existing state-of-the-art methods, and finish by using dropout's uncertainty in deep reinforcement learning.

One of the core problems of modern statistics is to approximate difficult-to-compute probability densities. This problem is especially important in Bayesian statistics, which frames all inference about unknown quantities as a calculation involving the posterior density. In this paper, we review variational inference (VI), a method from machine learning that approximates probability densities through optimization. VI has been used in many applications and tends to be faster than classical methods, such as Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling. The idea behind VI is to first posit a family of densities and then to find the member of that family which is close to the target. Closeness is measured by Kullback-Leibler divergence. We review the ideas behind mean-field variational inference, discuss the special case of VI applied to exponential family models, present a full example with a Bayesian mixture of Gaussians, and derive a variant that uses stochastic optimization to scale up to massive data. We discuss modern research in VI and highlight important open problems. VI is powerful, but it is not yet well understood. Our hope in writing this paper is to catalyze statistical research on this class of algorithms.

随机梯度马尔可夫链蒙特卡洛（SGMCMC）被认为是大型模型（例如贝叶斯神经网络）中贝叶斯推断的金标准。由于从业人员在这些模型中面临速度与准确性权衡，因此变异推理（VI）通常是可取的选择。不幸的是，VI对后部的分解和功能形式做出了有力的假设。在这项工作中，我们提出了一个新的非参数变分近似，该近似没有对后验功能形式进行假设，并允许从业者指定算法应尊重或断裂的确切依赖性。该方法依赖于在修改的能量函数上运行的新的langevin型算法，其中潜在变量的一部分是在马尔可夫链的早期迭代中平均的。这样，统计依赖性可以以受控的方式破裂，从而使链条混合更快。可以以“辍学”方式进一步修改该方案，从而导致更大的可扩展性。我们在CIFAR-10，SVHN和FMNIST上测试RESNET-20的计划。在所有情况下，与SG-MCMC和VI相比，我们都会发现收敛速度和/或最终精度的提高。

在本文中，我们提出了一种在贝叶斯神经网络中执行近似高斯推理（Tagi）的分析方法。该方法使得后尺寸矢量和对角线协方差矩阵的分析高斯推断用于重量和偏差。提出的方法具有$ \ mathcal {o}（n）$的计算复杂性，与参数$ n $的数量，并且对回归和分类基准测试的测试确认，对于相同的网络架构，它匹配依赖于梯度背交的现有方法的性能。