马尔可夫决策过程(MDP)是在顺序决策中常用的正式模型。 MDP捕获了可能出现的随机性,例如,通过过渡函数中的概率从不精确的执行器中捕获。但是,在数据驱动的应用程序中,从(有限)数据中得出精确的概率引入了可能导致意外或不良结果的统计错误。不确定的MDP(UMDP)不需要精确的概率,而是在过渡中使用所谓的不确定性集,占此类有限的数据。正式验证社区中的工具有效地计算了强大的政策,这些政策在不确定性集中最坏的情况下,可以证明遵守正式规格,例如安全限制。我们不断地以强大的学习方法与将专用的贝叶斯推理方案与强大策略的计算结合在一起的任何时间学习方法中不断学习MDP的过渡概率。特别是,我们的方法(1)将概率近似为间隔,(2)适应可能与中间模型不一致的新数据,并且可以随时停止(3),以在UMDP上计算强大的策略,以忠实地捕获稳健的策略到目前为止的数据。我们展示了我们的方法的有效性,并将其与在几个基准的实验评估中对UMDP计算出的UMDP进行了比较。
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在线强化学习(RL)中的挑战之一是代理人需要促进对环境的探索和对样品的利用来优化其行为。无论我们是否优化遗憾,采样复杂性,状态空间覆盖范围或模型估计,我们都需要攻击不同的勘探开发权衡。在本文中,我们建议在分离方法组成的探索 - 剥削问题:1)“客观特定”算法(自适应)规定哪些样本以收集到哪些状态,似乎它可以访问a生成模型(即环境的模拟器); 2)负责尽可能快地生成规定样品的“客观无关的”样品收集勘探策略。建立最近在随机最短路径问题中进行探索的方法,我们首先提供一种算法,它给出了每个状态动作对所需的样本$ B(S,a)$的样本数量,需要$ \ tilde {o} (bd + d ^ {3/2} s ^ 2 a)收集$ b = \ sum_ {s,a} b(s,a)$所需样本的$时间步骤,以$ s $各国,$ a $行动和直径$ d $。然后我们展示了这种通用探索算法如何与“客观特定的”策略配对,这些策略规定了解决各种设置的样本要求 - 例如,模型估计,稀疏奖励发现,无需无成本勘探沟通MDP - 我们获得改进或新颖的样本复杂性保证。
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逆增强学习(IRL)是从专家演示中推断奖励功能的强大范式。许多IRL算法都需要已知的过渡模型,有时甚至是已知的专家政策,或者至少需要访问生成模型。但是,对于许多现实世界应用,这些假设太强了,在这些应用程序中,只能通过顺序相互作用访问环境。我们提出了一种新颖的IRL算法:逆增强学习(ACEIRL)的积极探索,该探索积极探索未知的环境和专家政策,以快速学习专家的奖励功能并确定良好的政策。 Aceirl使用以前的观察来构建置信区间,以捕获合理的奖励功能,并找到关注环境最有用区域的勘探政策。 Aceirl是使用样品复杂性界限的第一种活动IRL的方法,不需要环境的生成模型。在最坏情况下,Aceirl与活性IRL的样品复杂性与生成模型匹配。此外,我们建立了一个与问题相关的结合,该结合将Aceirl的样品复杂性与给定IRL问题的次级隔离间隙联系起来。我们在模拟中对Aceirl进行了经验评估,发现它的表现明显优于更幼稚的探索策略。
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当环境稀疏和非马克维亚奖励时,使用标量奖励信号的训练加强学习(RL)代理通常是不可行的。此外,在训练之前对这些奖励功能进行手工制作很容易指定,尤其是当环境的动态仅部分知道时。本文提出了一条新型的管道,用于学习非马克维亚任务规格,作为简洁的有限状态“任务自动机”,从未知环境中的代理体验情节中。我们利用两种关键算法的见解。首先,我们通过将其视为部分可观察到的MDP并为隐藏的Markov模型使用现成的算法,从而学习了由规范的自动机和环境MDP组成的产品MDP,该模型是由规范的自动机和环境MDP组成的。其次,我们提出了一种从学习的产品MDP中提取任务自动机(假定为确定性有限自动机)的新方法。我们学到的任务自动机可以使任务分解为其组成子任务,从而提高了RL代理以后可以合成最佳策略的速率。它还提供了高级环境和任务功能的可解释编码,因此人可以轻松地验证代理商是否在没有错误的情况下学习了连贯的任务。此外,我们采取步骤确保学识渊博的自动机是环境不可静止的,使其非常适合用于转移学习。最后,我们提供实验结果,以说明我们在不同环境和任务中的算法的性能及其合并先前的领域知识以促进更有效学习的能力。
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Besides the recent impressive results on reinforcement learning (RL), safety is still one of the major research challenges in RL. RL is a machine-learning approach to determine near-optimal policies in Markov decision processes (MDPs). In this paper, we consider the setting where the safety-relevant fragment of the MDP together with a temporal logic safety specification is given and many safety violations can be avoided by planning ahead a short time into the future. We propose an approach for online safety shielding of RL agents. During runtime, the shield analyses the safety of each available action. For any action, the shield computes the maximal probability to not violate the safety specification within the next $k$ steps when executing this action. Based on this probability and a given threshold, the shield decides whether to block an action from the agent. Existing offline shielding approaches compute exhaustively the safety of all state-action combinations ahead of time, resulting in huge computation times and large memory consumption. The intuition behind online shielding is to compute at runtime the set of all states that could be reached in the near future. For each of these states, the safety of all available actions is analysed and used for shielding as soon as one of the considered states is reached. Our approach is well suited for high-level planning problems where the time between decisions can be used for safety computations and it is sustainable for the agent to wait until these computations are finished. For our evaluation, we selected a 2-player version of the classical computer game SNAKE. The game represents a high-level planning problem that requires fast decisions and the multiplayer setting induces a large state space, which is computationally expensive to analyse exhaustively.
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我们使用线性时间逻辑(LTL)约束研究策略优化问题(PO)。LTL的语言允许灵活描述可能不自然的任务,以编码为标量成本函数。我们将LTL受限的PO视为系统框架,将任务规范与策略选择解耦,以及成本塑造标准的替代方案。通过访问生成模型,我们开发了一种基于模型的方法,该方法享有样本复杂性分析,以确保任务满意度和成本最佳性(通过减少到可达性问题)。从经验上讲,即使在低样本制度中,我们的算法也可以实现强大的性能。
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安全政策改进(SPI)是在安全关键应用中脱机加强学习的重要技术,因为它以很高的可能性改善了行为政策。我们根据如何利用国家行动对的不确定性将各种SPI方法分为两组。为了关注软SPIBB(通过软基线自举的安全政策改进)算法,我们表明他们对被证明安全的主张不坚持。基于这一发现,我们开发了适应性,Adv-Soft SpibB算法,并证明它们是可以安全的。在两个基准上进行的广泛实验中,启发式适应性较低的SPOBB在所有SPIBB算法中都能表现出最佳性能。我们还检查了可证明的安全算法的安全保证,并表明有大量数据是必要的,以使安全界限在实践中变得有用。
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在钢筋学习(RL)中,代理必须探索最初未知的环境,以便学习期望的行为。当RL代理部署在现实世界环境中时,安全性是主要关注的。受约束的马尔可夫决策过程(CMDPS)可以提供长期的安全约束;但是,该代理人可能会违反探索其环境的制约因素。本文提出了一种称为显式探索,漏洞探索或转义($ e ^ {4} $)的基于模型的RL算法,它将显式探索或利用($ e ^ {3} $)算法扩展到强大的CMDP设置。 $ e ^ 4 $明确地分离开发,探索和逃脱CMDP,允许针对已知状态的政策改进的有针对性的政策,发现未知状态,以及安全返回到已知状态。 $ e ^ 4 $强制优化了从一组CMDP模型的最坏情况CMDP上的这些策略,该模型符合部署环境的经验观察。理论结果表明,在整个学习过程中满足安全限制的情况下,在多项式时间中找到近最优的约束政策。我们讨论了稳健约束的离线优化算法,以及如何基于经验推理和先验知识来结合未知状态过渡动态的不确定性。
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近年来,研究人员在设计了用于优化线性时间逻辑(LTL)目标和LTL的目标中的增强学习算法方面取得了重大进展。尽管有这些进步,但解决了这个问题的基本限制,以至于以前的研究暗示,但对我们的知识而言,尚未深入检查。在本文中,我们通过一般的LTL目标理解了学习的硬度。我们在马尔可夫决策过程(PAC-MDP)框架(PAC-MDP)框架中可能大致正确学习的问题正式化,这是一种测量加固学习中的样本复杂性的标准框架。在这一形式化中,我们证明,只有在LTL层次结构中最有限的类别中,才有于仅当公式中的最有限的类别,因此才能获得PAC-MDP的最佳政策。实际上,我们的结果意味着加强学习算法无法在与非有限范围可解除的LTL目标的无限环境的相互作用之后获得其学习政策的性能的PAC-MDP保证。
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Automated synthesis of provably correct controllers for cyber-physical systems is crucial for deploying these systems in safety-critical scenarios. However, their hybrid features and stochastic or unknown behaviours make this synthesis problem challenging. In this paper, we propose a method for synthesizing controllers for Markov jump linear systems (MJLSs), a particular class of cyber-physical systems, that certifiably satisfy a requirement expressed as a specification in probabilistic computation tree logic (PCTL). An MJLS consists of a finite set of linear dynamics with unknown additive disturbances, where jumps between these modes are governed by a Markov decision process (MDP). We consider both the case where the transition function of this MDP is given by probability intervals or where it is completely unknown. Our approach is based on generating a finite-state abstraction which captures both the discrete and the continuous behaviour of the original system. We formalise such abstraction as an interval Markov decision process (iMDP): intervals of transition probabilities are computed using sampling techniques from the so-called "scenario approach", resulting in a probabilistically sound approximation of the MJLS. This iMDP abstracts both the jump dynamics between modes, as well as the continuous dynamics within the modes. To demonstrate the efficacy of our technique, we apply our method to multiple realistic benchmark problems, in particular, temperature control, and aerial vehicle delivery problems.
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Safety is still one of the major research challenges in reinforcement learning (RL). In this paper, we address the problem of how to avoid safety violations of RL agents during exploration in probabilistic and partially unknown environments. Our approach combines automata learning for Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) and shield synthesis in an iterative approach. Initially, the MDP representing the environment is unknown. The agent starts exploring the environment and collects traces. From the collected traces, we passively learn MDPs that abstractly represent the safety-relevant aspects of the environment. Given a learned MDP and a safety specification, we construct a shield. For each state-action pair within a learned MDP, the shield computes exact probabilities on how likely it is that executing the action results in violating the specification from the current state within the next $k$ steps. After the shield is constructed, the shield is used during runtime and blocks any actions that induce a too large risk from the agent. The shielded agent continues to explore the environment and collects new data on the environment. Iteratively, we use the collected data to learn new MDPs with higher accuracy, resulting in turn in shields able to prevent more safety violations. We implemented our approach and present a detailed case study of a Q-learning agent exploring slippery Gridworlds. In our experiments, we show that as the agent explores more and more of the environment during training, the improved learned models lead to shields that are able to prevent many safety violations.
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在安全关键方案中利用自主系统需要在存在影响系统动态的不确定性和黑匣子组件存在下验证其行为。在本文中,我们开发了一个框架,用于验证部分可观察到的离散时间动态系统,从给定的输入输出数据集中具有针对时间逻辑规范的未暗模式可分散的动态系统。验证框架采用高斯进程(GP)回归,以了解数据集中的未知动态,并将连续空间系统抽象为有限状态,不确定的马尔可夫决策过程(MDP)。这种抽象依赖于通过使用可重复的内核Hilbert空间分析以及通过离散化引起的不确定性来捕获由于GP回归中的错误而捕获不确定性的过渡概率间隔。该框架利用现有的模型检查工具来验证对给定时间逻辑规范的不确定MDP抽象。我们建立将验证结果扩展到潜在部分可观察系统的抽象结果的正确性。我们表明框架的计算复杂性在数据集和离散抽象的大小中是多项式。复杂性分析说明了验证结果质量与处理较大数据集和更精细抽象的计算负担之间的权衡。最后,我们展示了我们的学习和验证框架在具有线性,非线性和切换动力系统的几种案例研究中的功效。
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Capturing uncertainty in models of complex dynamical systems is crucial to designing safe controllers. Stochastic noise causes aleatoric uncertainty, whereas imprecise knowledge of model parameters leads to epistemic uncertainty. Several approaches use formal abstractions to synthesize policies that satisfy temporal specifications related to safety and reachability. However, the underlying models exclusively capture aleatoric but not epistemic uncertainty, and thus require that model parameters are known precisely. Our contribution to overcoming this restriction is a novel abstraction-based controller synthesis method for continuous-state models with stochastic noise and uncertain parameters. By sampling techniques and robust analysis, we capture both aleatoric and epistemic uncertainty, with a user-specified confidence level, in the transition probability intervals of a so-called interval Markov decision process (iMDP). We synthesize an optimal policy on this iMDP, which translates (with the specified confidence level) to a feedback controller for the continuous model with the same performance guarantees. Our experimental benchmarks confirm that accounting for epistemic uncertainty leads to controllers that are more robust against variations in parameter values.
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With a few exceptions, work in offline reinforcement learning (RL) has so far assumed that there is no confounding. In a classical regression setting, confounders introduce omitted variable bias and inhibit the identification of causal effects. In offline RL, they prevent the identification of a policy's value, and therefore make it impossible to perform policy improvement. Using conventional methods in offline RL in the presence of confounding can therefore not only lead to poor decisions and poor policies, but can also have disastrous effects in applications such as healthcare and education. We provide approaches for both off-policy evaluation (OPE) and local policy optimization in the settings of i.i.d. and global confounders. Theoretical and empirical results confirm the validity and viability of these methods.
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在安全关键设置中运行的自治系统的控制器必须考虑随机扰动。这种干扰通常被建模为过程噪声,并且常见的假设是底层分布是已知的和/或高斯的。然而,在实践中,这些假设可能是不现实的并且可以导致真正噪声分布的近似值。我们提出了一种新的规划方法,不依赖于噪声分布的任何明确表示。特别是,我们解决了计算控制器的控制器,该控制器提供了安全地到达目标的概率保证。首先,我们将连续系统摘要进入一个离散状态模型,通过状态之间的概率转换捕获噪声。作为关键贡献,我们根据噪声的有限数量的样本来调整这些过渡概率的方案方法中的工具。我们在所谓的间隔马尔可夫决策过程(IMDP)的转换概率间隔中捕获这些界限。该IMDP在过渡概率中的不确定性稳健,并且可以通过样本的数量来控制概率间隔的紧张性。我们使用最先进的验证技术在IMDP上提供保证,并计算这些保证对自主系统的控制器。即使IMDP有数百万个州或过渡,也表明了我们方法的实际适用性。
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In inverse reinforcement learning (IRL), a learning agent infers a reward function encoding the underlying task using demonstrations from experts. However, many existing IRL techniques make the often unrealistic assumption that the agent has access to full information about the environment. We remove this assumption by developing an algorithm for IRL in partially observable Markov decision processes (POMDPs). We address two limitations of existing IRL techniques. First, they require an excessive amount of data due to the information asymmetry between the expert and the learner. Second, most of these IRL techniques require solving the computationally intractable forward problem -- computing an optimal policy given a reward function -- in POMDPs. The developed algorithm reduces the information asymmetry while increasing the data efficiency by incorporating task specifications expressed in temporal logic into IRL. Such specifications may be interpreted as side information available to the learner a priori in addition to the demonstrations. Further, the algorithm avoids a common source of algorithmic complexity by building on causal entropy as the measure of the likelihood of the demonstrations as opposed to entropy. Nevertheless, the resulting problem is nonconvex due to the so-called forward problem. We solve the intrinsic nonconvexity of the forward problem in a scalable manner through a sequential linear programming scheme that guarantees to converge to a locally optimal policy. In a series of examples, including experiments in a high-fidelity Unity simulator, we demonstrate that even with a limited amount of data and POMDPs with tens of thousands of states, our algorithm learns reward functions and policies that satisfy the task while inducing similar behavior to the expert by leveraging the provided side information.
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马尔可夫决策过程通常用于不确定性下的顺序决策。然而,对于许多方面,从受约束或安全规范到任务和奖励结构中的各种时间(非Markovian)依赖性,需要扩展。为此,近年来,兴趣已经发展成为强化学习和时间逻辑的组合,即灵活的行为学习方法的组合,具有稳健的验证和保证。在本文中,我们描述了最近引入的常规决策过程的实验调查,该过程支持非马洛维亚奖励功能以及过渡职能。特别是,我们为常规决策过程,与在线,增量学习有关的算法扩展,对无模型和基于模型的解决方案算法的实证评估,以及以常规但非马尔维亚,网格世界的应用程序的算法扩展。
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离线RL算法必须说明其提供的数据集可能使环境的许多方面未知。应对这一挑战的最常见方法是采用悲观或保守的方法,避免行为与培训数据集中的行为过于不同。但是,仅依靠保守主义存在缺点:绩效对保守主义的确切程度很敏感,保守的目标可以恢复高度最佳的政策。在这项工作中,我们建议在不确定性的情况下,脱机RL方法应该是适应性的。我们表明,在贝叶斯的意义上,在离线RL中最佳作用涉及解决隐式POMDP。结果,离线RL的最佳策略必须是自适应的,这不仅取决于当前状态,而且还取决于迄今为止在评估期间看到的所有过渡。我们提出了一种无模型的算法,用于近似于此最佳自适应策略,并证明在离线RL基准测试中学习此类适应性政策。
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非政策评估(OPE)方法是评估高风险领域(例如医疗保健)中的政策的关键工具,在这些领域,直接部署通常是不可行的,不道德的或昂贵的。当期望部署环境发生变化(即数据集偏移)时,对于OPE方法,在此类更改中对策略进行强大的评估非常重要。现有的方法考虑对可以任意改变环境的任何可观察到的任何可观察到的属性的大量转变。这通常会导致对公用事业的高度悲观估计,从而使可能对部署有用的政策无效。在这项工作中,我们通过研究领域知识如何帮助提供对政策公用事业的更现实的估计来解决上述问题。我们利用人类的投入,在环境的哪些方面可能会发生变化,并适应OPE方法仅考虑这些方面的转变。具体而言,我们提出了一个新颖的框架,可靠的OPE(绳索),该框架认为基于用户输入的数据中的协变量子集,并估算了这些变化下最坏情况的效用。然后,我们为OPE开发了对OPE的计算有效算法,这些算法对上述强盗和马尔可夫决策过程的上述变化很强。我们还理论上分析了这些算法的样品复杂性。从医疗领域进行的合成和现实世界数据集进行了广泛的实验表明,我们的方法不仅可以捕获现实的数据集准确地转移,而且还会导致较少的悲观政策评估。
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大部分强化学习理论都建立在计算上难以实施的甲板上。专门用于在部分可观察到的马尔可夫决策过程(POMDP)中学习近乎最佳的政策,现有算法要么需要对模型动态(例如确定性过渡)做出强有力的假设,要么假设访问甲骨文作为解决艰难的计划或估算问题的访问子例程。在这项工作中,我们在合理的假设下开发了第一个用于POMDP的无Oracle学习算法。具体而言,我们给出了一种用于在“可观察” pomdps中学习的准化性时间端到端算法,其中可观察性是一个假设,即对国家而言,分离良好的分布诱导了分离良好的分布分布而不是观察。我们的技术规定了在不确定性下使用乐观原则来促进探索的更传统的方法,而是在构建策略涵盖的情况下提供了一种新颖的barycentric跨度应用。
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