This work builds on the models and concepts presented in part 1 to learn approximate dictionary representations of Koopman operators from data. Part I of this paper presented a methodology for arguing the subspace invariance of a Koopman dictionary. This methodology was demonstrated on the state-inclusive logistic lifting (SILL) basis. This is an affine basis augmented with conjunctive logistic functions. The SILL dictionary's nonlinear functions are homogeneous, a norm in data-driven dictionary learning of Koopman operators. In this paper, we discover that structured mixing of heterogeneous dictionary functions drawn from different classes of nonlinear functions achieve the same accuracy and dimensional scaling as the deep-learning-based deepDMD algorithm. We specifically show this by building a heterogeneous dictionary comprised of SILL functions and conjunctive radial basis functions (RBFs). This mixed dictionary achieves the same accuracy and dimensional scaling as deepDMD with an order of magnitude reduction in parameters, while maintaining geometric interpretability. These results strengthen the viability of dictionary-based Koopman models to solving high-dimensional nonlinear learning problems.
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Koopman运算符将非线性动力学模型为线性动力学系统,该系统作用于非线性函数作为状态。这种非标准状态通常被称为可观察到的koopman,通常通过从\ textit {dictionary}绘制的函数的叠加来近似数值。广泛使用的算法是\ textit {扩展动态模式分解},其中字典函数是从固定的均匀函数类中绘制的。最近,深度学习与EDMD相结合已被用来通过称为“深度动态模式分解(DEEPDMD)”的算法学习新的字典函数。学到的表示(1)都准确地模型,并且(2)与原始非线性系统的尺寸相当地缩放。在本文中,我们从deepDMD分析了学习的词典,并探索了其强劲性能的理论基础。我们发现了一类新型的字典函数,以近似Koopman可观察结果。这些字典函数的错误分析表明它们满足子空间近似的属性,我们将其定义为统一的有限近似闭合。我们发现,从不同类别的非线性函数绘制的异质词典函数的结构化混合达到了与DEEPDMD相同的精度和尺寸缩放。该混合词典以降低参数的数量级来进行,同时保持几何可解释性。我们的结果提供了一个假设,可以解释深度神经网络在学习数值近似值对Koopman操作员的成功。
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Koopman operators model nonlinear dynamics as a linear dynamic system acting on a nonlinear function as the state. This nonstandard state is often called a Koopman observable and is usually approximated numerically by a superposition of functions drawn from a dictionary. In a widely used algorithm, Extended Dynamic Mode Decomposition, the dictionary functions are drawn from a fixed class of functions. Recently, deep learning combined with EDMD has been used to learn novel dictionary functions in an algorithm called deep dynamic mode decomposition (deepDMD). The learned representation both (1) accurately models and (2) scales well with the dimension of the original nonlinear system. In this paper we analyze the learned dictionaries from deepDMD and explore the theoretical basis for their strong performance. We explore State-Inclusive Logistic Lifting (SILL) dictionary functions to approximate Koopman observables. Error analysis of these dictionary functions show they satisfy a property of subspace approximation, which we define as uniform finite approximate closure. Our results provide a hypothesis to explain the success of deep neural networks in learning numerical approximations to Koopman operators. Part 2 of this paper will extend this explanation by demonstrating the subspace invariant of heterogeneous dictionaries and presenting a head-to-head numerical comparison of deepDMD and low-parameter heterogeneous dictionary learning.
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在许多学科中,动态系统的数据信息预测模型的开发引起了广泛的兴趣。我们提出了一个统一的框架,用于混合机械和机器学习方法,以从嘈杂和部分观察到的数据中识别动态系统。我们将纯数据驱动的学习与混合模型进行比较,这些学习结合了不完善的域知识。我们的公式与所选的机器学习模型不可知,在连续和离散的时间设置中都呈现,并且与表现出很大的内存和错误的模型误差兼容。首先,我们从学习理论的角度研究无内存线性(W.R.T.参数依赖性)模型误差,从而定义了过多的风险和概括误差。对于沿阵行的连续时间系统,我们证明,多余的风险和泛化误差都通过与T的正方形介于T的术语(指定训练数据的时间间隔)的术语界定。其次,我们研究了通过记忆建模而受益的方案,证明了两类连续时间复发性神经网络(RNN)的通用近似定理:两者都可以学习与内存有关的模型误差。此外,我们将一类RNN连接到储层计算,从而将学习依赖性错误的学习与使用随机特征在Banach空间之间进行监督学习的最新工作联系起来。给出了数值结果(Lorenz '63,Lorenz '96多尺度系统),以比较纯粹的数据驱动和混合方法,发现混合方法较少,渴望数据较少,并且更有效。最后,我们从数值上证明了如何利用数据同化来从嘈杂,部分观察到的数据中学习隐藏的动态,并说明了通过这种方法和培训此类模型来表示记忆的挑战。
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我们为特殊神经网络架构,称为运营商复发性神经网络的理论分析,用于近似非线性函数,其输入是线性运算符。这些功能通常在解决方案算法中出现用于逆边值问题的问题。传统的神经网络将输入数据视为向量,因此它们没有有效地捕获与对应于这种逆问题中的数据的线性运算符相关联的乘法结构。因此,我们介绍一个类似标准的神经网络架构的新系列,但是输入数据在向量上乘法作用。由较小的算子出现在边界控制中的紧凑型操作员和波动方程的反边值问题分析,我们在网络中的选择权重矩阵中促进结构和稀疏性。在描述此架构后,我们研究其表示属性以及其近似属性。我们还表明,可以引入明确的正则化,其可以从所述逆问题的数学分析导出,并导致概括属性上的某些保证。我们观察到重量矩阵的稀疏性改善了概括估计。最后,我们讨论如何将运营商复发网络视为深度学习模拟,以确定诸如用于从边界测量的声波方程中重建所未知的WAVESTED的边界控制的算法算法。
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Koopman运算符是无限维的运算符,可全球线性化非线性动态系统,使其光谱信息可用于理解动态。然而,Koopman运算符可以具有连续的光谱和无限维度的子空间,使得它们的光谱信息提供相当大的挑战。本文介绍了具有严格融合的数据驱动算法,用于从轨迹数据计算Koopman运算符的频谱信息。我们引入了残余动态模式分解(ResDMD),它提供了第一种用于计算普通Koopman运算符的Spectra和PseudtoStra的第一种方案,无需光谱污染。使用解析器操作员和RESDMD,我们还计算与测量保存动态系统相关的光谱度量的平滑近似。我们证明了我们的算法的显式收敛定理,即使计算连续频谱和离散频谱的密度,也可以实现高阶收敛即使是混沌系统。我们展示了在帐篷地图,高斯迭代地图,非线性摆,双摆,洛伦茨系统和11美元延长洛伦兹系统的算法。最后,我们为具有高维状态空间的动态系统提供了我们的算法的核化变体。这使我们能够计算与具有20,046维状态空间的蛋白质分子的动态相关的光谱度量,并计算出湍流流过空气的误差界限的非线性Koopman模式,其具有雷诺数为$> 10 ^ 5 $。一个295,122维的状态空间。
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基于近似基础的Koopman操作员或发电机的数据驱动的非线性动力系统模型已被证明是预测,功能学习,状态估计和控制的成功工具。众所周知,用于控制膜系统的Koopman发电机还对输入具有仿射依赖性,从而导致动力学的方便有限维双线性近似。然而,仍然存在两个主要障碍,限制了当前方法的范围,以逼近系统的koopman发电机。首先,现有方法的性能在很大程度上取决于要近似Koopman Generator的基础函数的选择;目前,目前尚无通用方法来为无法衡量保存的系统选择它们。其次,如果我们不观察到完整的状态,我们可能无法访问足够丰富的此类功能来描述动态。这是因为在有驱动时,通常使用时间延迟的可观察物的方法失败。为了解决这些问题,我们将Koopman Generator控制的可观察到的动力学写为双线性隐藏Markov模型,并使用预期最大化(EM)算法确定模型参数。 E-Step涉及标准的Kalman滤波器和更光滑,而M-Step类似于发电机的控制效果模式分解。我们在三个示例上证明了该方法的性能,包括恢复有限的Koopman-Invariant子空间,用于具有缓慢歧管的驱动系统;估计非强制性行驶方程的Koopman本征函数;仅基于提升和阻力的嘈杂观察,对流体弹球系统的模型预测控制。
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这项调查的目的是介绍对深神经网络的近似特性的解释性回顾。具体而言,我们旨在了解深神经网络如何以及为什么要优于其他经典线性和非线性近似方法。这项调查包括三章。在第1章中,我们回顾了深层网络及其组成非线性结构的关键思想和概念。我们通过在解决回归和分类问题时将其作为优化问题来形式化神经网络问题。我们简要讨论用于解决优化问题的随机梯度下降算法以及用于解决优化问题的后传播公式,并解决了与神经网络性能相关的一些问题,包括选择激活功能,成本功能,过度适应问题和正则化。在第2章中,我们将重点转移到神经网络的近似理论上。我们首先介绍多项式近似中的密度概念,尤其是研究实现连续函数的Stone-WeierStrass定理。然后,在线性近似的框架内,我们回顾了馈电网络的密度和收敛速率的一些经典结果,然后在近似Sobolev函数中进行有关深网络复杂性的最新发展。在第3章中,利用非线性近似理论,我们进一步详细介绍了深度和近似网络与其他经典非线性近似方法相比的近似优势。
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我们研究了神经网络中平方损耗训练问题的优化景观和稳定性,但通用非线性圆锥近似方案。据证明,如果认为非线性圆锥近似方案是(以适当定义的意义)比经典线性近似方法更具表现力,并且如果存在不完美的标签向量,则在方位损耗的训练问题必须在其中不稳定感知其解决方案集在训练数据中的标签向量上不连续地取决于标签向量。我们进一步证明对这些不稳定属性负责的效果也是马鞍点出现的原因和杂散的局部最小值,这可能是从全球解决方案的任意遥远的,并且既不训练问题也不是训练问题的不稳定性通常,杂散局部最小值的存在可以通过向目标函数添加正则化术语来克服衡量近似方案中参数大小的目标函数。无论可实现的可实现性是否满足,后一种结果都被证明是正确的。我们表明,我们的分析特别适用于具有可变宽度的自由结插值方案和深层和浅层神经网络的培训问题,其涉及各种激活功能的任意混合(例如,二进制,六骨,Tanh,arctan,软标志, ISRU,Soft-Clip,SQNL,Relu,Lifley Relu,Soft-Plus,Bent Identity,Silu,Isrlu和ELU)。总之,本文的发现说明了神经网络和一般非线性圆锥近似仪器的改进近似特性以直接和可量化的方式与必须解决的优化问题的不期望的性质链接,以便训练它们。
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非线性自适应控制理论中的一个关键假设是系统的不确定性可以在一组已知基本函数的线性跨度中表示。虽然该假设导致有效的算法,但它将应用限制为非常特定的系统类别。我们介绍一种新的非参数自适应算法,其在参数上学习无限尺寸密度,以取消再现内核希尔伯特空间中的未知干扰。令人惊讶的是,所产生的控制输入承认,尽管其底层无限尺寸结构,但是尽管它的潜在无限尺寸结构实现了其实施的分析表达。虽然这种自适应输入具有丰富和富有敏感性的 - 例如,传统的线性参数化 - 其计算复杂性随时间线性增长,使其比其参数对应力相对较高。利用随机傅里叶特征的理论,我们提供了一种有效的随机实现,该实现恢复了经典参数方法的复杂性,同时可透明地保留非参数输入的表征性。特别地,我们的显式范围仅取决于系统的基础参数,允许我们所提出的算法有效地缩放到高维系统。作为该方法的说明,我们展示了随机近似算法学习由牛顿重力交互的十点批量组成的60维系统的预测模型的能力。
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High-dimensional PDEs have been a longstanding computational challenge. We propose to solve highdimensional PDEs by approximating the solution with a deep neural network which is trained to satisfy the differential operator, initial condition, and boundary conditions. Our algorithm is meshfree, which is key since meshes become infeasible in higher dimensions. Instead of forming a mesh, the neural network is trained on batches of randomly sampled time and space points. The algorithm is tested on a class of high-dimensional free boundary PDEs, which we are able to accurately solve in up to 200 dimensions. The algorithm is also tested on a high-dimensional Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman PDE and Burgers' equation. The deep learning algorithm approximates the general solution to the Burgers' equation for a continuum of different boundary conditions and physical conditions (which can be viewed as a high-dimensional space). We call the algorithm a "Deep Galerkin Method (DGM)" since it is similar in spirit to Galerkin methods, with the solution approximated by a neural network instead of a linear combination of basis functions. In addition, we prove a theorem regarding the approximation power of neural networks for a class of quasilinear parabolic PDEs.
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数据科学和机器学习的进展已在非线性动力学系统的建模和模拟方面取得了重大改进。如今,可以准确预测复杂系统,例如天气,疾病模型或股市。预测方法通常被宣传为对控制有用,但是由于系统的复杂性,较大的数据集的需求以及增加的建模工作,这些细节经常没有得到解答。换句话说,自治系统的替代建模比控制系统要容易得多。在本文中,我们介绍了Quasimodo框架(量化模拟模拟模拟 - 优化),以将任意预测模型转换为控制系统,从而使数据驱动的替代模型的巨大进步可访问控制系统。我们的主要贡献是,我们通过自动化动力学(产生混合企业控制问题)来贸易控制效率,以获取任意,即使用的自主替代建模技术。然后,我们通过利用混合成员优化的最新结果来恢复原始问题的复杂性。 Quasimodo的优点是数据要求在控制维度方面的线性增加,性能保证仅依赖于使用的预测模型的准确性,而控制理论中的知识知识要求很少来解决复杂的控制问题。
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We study the expressibility and learnability of convex optimization solution functions and their multi-layer architectural extension. The main results are: \emph{(1)} the class of solution functions of linear programming (LP) and quadratic programming (QP) is a universal approximant for the $C^k$ smooth model class or some restricted Sobolev space, and we characterize the rate-distortion, \emph{(2)} the approximation power is investigated through a viewpoint of regression error, where information about the target function is provided in terms of data observations, \emph{(3)} compositionality in the form of a deep architecture with optimization as a layer is shown to reconstruct some basic functions used in numerical analysis without error, which implies that \emph{(4)} a substantial reduction in rate-distortion can be achieved with a universal network architecture, and \emph{(5)} we discuss the statistical bounds of empirical covering numbers for LP/QP, as well as a generic optimization problem (possibly nonconvex) by exploiting tame geometry. Our results provide the \emph{first rigorous analysis of the approximation and learning-theoretic properties of solution functions} with implications for algorithmic design and performance guarantees.
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Low-rank matrix approximations, such as the truncated singular value decomposition and the rank-revealing QR decomposition, play a central role in data analysis and scientific computing. This work surveys and extends recent research which demonstrates that randomization offers a powerful tool for performing low-rank matrix approximation. These techniques exploit modern computational architectures more fully than classical methods and open the possibility of dealing with truly massive data sets.This paper presents a modular framework for constructing randomized algorithms that compute partial matrix decompositions. These methods use random sampling to identify a subspace that captures most of the action of a matrix. The input matrix is then compressed-either explicitly or implicitly-to this subspace, and the reduced matrix is manipulated deterministically to obtain the desired low-rank factorization. In many cases, this approach beats its classical competitors in terms of accuracy, speed, and robustness. These claims are supported by extensive numerical experiments and a detailed error analysis.The specific benefits of randomized techniques depend on the computational environment. Consider the model problem of finding the k dominant components of the singular value decomposition of an m × n matrix. (i) For a dense input matrix, randomized algorithms require O(mn log(k)) floating-point operations (flops) in contrast with O(mnk) for classical algorithms. (ii) For a sparse input matrix, the flop count matches classical Krylov subspace methods, but the randomized approach is more robust and can easily be reorganized to exploit multi-processor architectures. (iii) For a matrix that is too large to fit in fast memory, the randomized techniques require only a constant number of passes over the data, as opposed to O(k) passes for classical algorithms. In fact, it is sometimes possible to perform matrix approximation with a single pass over the data.
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近期在应用于培训深度神经网络和数据分析中的其他优化问题中的非凸优化的优化算法的兴趣增加,我们概述了最近对非凸优化优化算法的全球性能保证的理论结果。我们从古典参数开始,显示一般非凸面问题无法在合理的时间内有效地解决。然后,我们提供了一个问题列表,可以通过利用问题的结构来有效地找到全球最小化器,因为可能的问题。处理非凸性的另一种方法是放宽目标,从找到全局最小,以找到静止点或局部最小值。对于该设置,我们首先为确定性一阶方法的收敛速率提出了已知结果,然后是最佳随机和随机梯度方案的一般理论分析,以及随机第一阶方法的概述。之后,我们讨论了非常一般的非凸面问题,例如最小化$ \ alpha $ -weakly-are-convex功能和满足Polyak-lojasiewicz条件的功能,这仍然允许获得一阶的理论融合保证方法。然后,我们考虑更高阶和零序/衍生物的方法及其收敛速率,以获得非凸优化问题。
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Artificial neural networks are functions depending on a finite number of parameters typically encoded as weights and biases. The identification of the parameters of the network from finite samples of input-output pairs is often referred to as the \emph{teacher-student model}, and this model has represented a popular framework for understanding training and generalization. Even if the problem is NP-complete in the worst case, a rapidly growing literature -- after adding suitable distributional assumptions -- has established finite sample identification of two-layer networks with a number of neurons $m=\mathcal O(D)$, $D$ being the input dimension. For the range $D<m<D^2$ the problem becomes harder, and truly little is known for networks parametrized by biases as well. This paper fills the gap by providing constructive methods and theoretical guarantees of finite sample identification for such wider shallow networks with biases. Our approach is based on a two-step pipeline: first, we recover the direction of the weights, by exploiting second order information; next, we identify the signs by suitable algebraic evaluations, and we recover the biases by empirical risk minimization via gradient descent. Numerical results demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach.
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在本文中,我们建立了一个神经网络以近似功能,该功能是从无限尺寸空间到有限维空间的地图。神经网络的近似误差为$ O(1/\ sqrt {m})$,其中$ m $是网络的大小,它克服了维度的诅咒。近似值的关键思想是定义功能的巴隆光谱空间。
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许多现代数据集,从神经影像和地统计数据等领域都以张量数据的随机样本的形式来说,这可以被理解为对光滑的多维随机功能的嘈杂观察。来自功能数据分析的大多数传统技术被维度的诅咒困扰,并且随着域的尺寸增加而迅速变得棘手。在本文中,我们提出了一种学习从多维功能数据样本的持续陈述的框架,这些功能是免受诅咒的几种表现形式的。这些表示由一组可分离的基函数构造,该函数被定义为最佳地适应数据。我们表明,通过仔细定义的数据的仔细定义的减少转换的张测仪分解可以有效地解决所得到的估计问题。使用基于差分运算符的惩罚,并入粗糙的正则化。也建立了相关的理论性质。在模拟研究中证明了我们对竞争方法的方法的优点。我们在神经影像动物中得出真正的数据应用。
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We consider neural networks with a single hidden layer and non-decreasing positively homogeneous activation functions like the rectified linear units. By letting the number of hidden units grow unbounded and using classical non-Euclidean regularization tools on the output weights, they lead to a convex optimization problem and we provide a detailed theoretical analysis of their generalization performance, with a study of both the approximation and the estimation errors. We show in particular that they are adaptive to unknown underlying linear structures, such as the dependence on the projection of the input variables onto a low-dimensional subspace. Moreover, when using sparsity-inducing norms on the input weights, we show that high-dimensional non-linear variable selection may be achieved, without any strong assumption regarding the data and with a total number of variables potentially exponential in the number of observations. However, solving this convex optimization problem in infinite dimensions is only possible if the non-convex subproblem of addition of a new unit can be solved efficiently. We provide a simple geometric interpretation for our choice of activation functions and describe simple conditions for convex relaxations of the finite-dimensional non-convex subproblem to achieve the same generalization error bounds, even when constant-factor approximations cannot be found. We were not able to find strong enough convex relaxations to obtain provably polynomial-time algorithms and leave open the existence or non-existence of such tractable algorithms with non-exponential sample complexities.
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扩展动态模式分解(EDMD)是一种流行的数据驱动方法,可近似Koopman运算符对函数字典跨越线性函数空间的作用。 EDMD模型的准确性在很大程度上取决于特定字典跨度的质量,特别是在Koopman操作员下与不变的距离有多近。通过观察到的观察,即EDMD的残余误差通常用于字典学习,并不能编码功能空间的质量,并且对基础的选择很敏感,我们介绍了一致性索引的新颖概念。我们表明,基于及时使用EDMD向后和向后的措施,享有许多理想的品质,使其适合于数据驱动的动态系统建模:它测量功能空间的质量,在选择下是不变的例如,可以从数据中以封闭形式计算,并为整个字典的所有函数预测的相对均方根误差提供了一个紧密的上限。
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