我们将减少创建AI的任务,以找到适当的语言来描述世界的任务。这不是编程语言,因为编程语言仅描述可计算的函数,而我们的语言将描述更广泛的函数类别。该语言的另一个特异性将是描述将包含单独的模块。这将使我们能够自动寻找世界的描述,以便我们在模块后发现它。我们创建这种新语言的方法将是从一个特定的世界开始,并写出特定世界的描述。关键是,可以描述这个特定世界的语言将适合描述任何世界。
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Alphazero,Leela Chess Zero和Stockfish Nnue革新了计算机国际象棋。本书对此类引擎的技术内部工作进行了完整的介绍。该书分为四个主要章节 - 不包括第1章(简介)和第6章(结论):第2章引入神经网络,涵盖了所有用于构建深层网络的基本构建块,例如Alphazero使用的网络。内容包括感知器,后传播和梯度下降,分类,回归,多层感知器,矢量化技术,卷积网络,挤压网络,挤压和激发网络,完全连接的网络,批处理归一化和横向归一化和跨性线性单位,残留层,剩余层,过度效果和底漆。第3章介绍了用于国际象棋发动机以及Alphazero使用的经典搜索技术。内容包括minimax,alpha-beta搜索和蒙特卡洛树搜索。第4章展示了现代国际象棋发动机的设计。除了开创性的Alphago,Alphago Zero和Alphazero我们涵盖Leela Chess Zero,Fat Fritz,Fat Fritz 2以及有效更新的神经网络(NNUE)以及MAIA。第5章是关于实施微型α。 Shexapawn是国际象棋的简约版本,被用作为此的示例。 Minimax搜索可以解决六ap峰,并产生了监督学习的培训位置。然后,作为比较,实施了类似Alphazero的训练回路,其中通过自我游戏进行训练与强化学习结合在一起。最后,比较了类似α的培训和监督培训。
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行为树(BT)是一种在自主代理中(例如机器人或计算机游戏中的虚拟实体)之间在不同任务之间进行切换的方法。 BT是创建模块化和反应性的复杂系统的一种非常有效的方法。这些属性在许多应用中至关重要,这导致BT从计算机游戏编程到AI和机器人技术的许多分支。在本书中,我们将首先对BTS进行介绍,然后我们描述BTS与早期切换结构的关系,并且在许多情况下如何概括。然后,这些想法被用作一套高效且易于使用的设计原理的基础。安全性,鲁棒性和效率等属性对于自主系统很重要,我们描述了一套使用BTS的状态空间描述正式分析这些系统的工具。借助新的分析工具,我们可以对BTS如何推广早期方法的形式形式化。我们还显示了BTS在自动化计划和机器学习中的使用。最后,我们描述了一组扩展的工具,以捕获随机BT的行为,其中动作的结果由概率描述。这些工具可以计算成功概率和完成时间。
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Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) is a recently proposed search method that combines the precision of tree search with the generality of random sampling. It has received considerable interest due to its spectacular success in the difficult problem of computer Go, but has also proved beneficial in a range of other domains. This paper is a survey of the literature to date, intended to provide a snapshot of the state of the art after the first five years of MCTS research. We outline the core algorithm's derivation, impart some structure on the many variations and enhancements that have been proposed, and summarise the results from the key game and non-game domains to which MCTS methods have been applied. A number of open research questions indicate that the field is ripe for future work.
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This paper surveys the eld of reinforcement learning from a computer-science perspective. It is written to be accessible to researchers familiar with machine learning. Both the historical basis of the eld and a broad selection of current work are summarized. Reinforcement learning is the problem faced by an agent that learns behavior through trial-and-error interactions with a dynamic environment. The work described here has a resemblance to work in psychology, but di ers considerably in the details and in the use of the word \reinforcement." The paper discusses central issues of reinforcement learning, including trading o exploration and exploitation, establishing the foundations of the eld via Markov decision theory, learning from delayed reinforcement, constructing empirical models to accelerate learning, making use of generalization and hierarchy, and coping with hidden state. It concludes with a survey of some implemented systems and an assessment of the practical utility of current methods for reinforcement learning.
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本文展示了单个机制如何通过直接从代理的原始传感器流流层构建层。这种机制,一般值函数(GVF)或“预测”,捕获高级,抽象知识,作为一组关于现有特征和知识的一组预测,其专门基于代理的低级感官和动作。因此,预测提供了将原始传感器数据组织成有用的抽象的表示 - 通过无限数量的层 - AI和认知科学的长寻求目标。本文的核心是一个详细的思想实验,提供了一个具体,逐步的正式说明,逐步的人工代理商如何从其原始的传感器体验中构建真实,有用的抽象知识。知识表示为关于代理人的观察到其行为后果的一组分层预测(预测)。该图示出了十二个独立的图层:最低的原始像素,触摸和力传感器以及少量动作;较高层次增加抽象,最终导致了对代理商世界的丰富知识,对应于门口,墙壁,房间和平面图。然后,我认为这种一般机制可以允许表示广泛的日常人类知识。
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我们为大脑和行为提供了一般的理论框架,这些框架是进化的和计算方式。我们抽象模型中的大脑是一个节点和边缘网络。虽然它与标准神经网络模型有一些相似之处,但随着我们所示,存在一些显着差异。我们网络中的节点和边缘都具有权重和激活级别。它们充当使用一组相对简单的规则来确定激活级别和权重的概率传感器,以通过输入,生成输出,并相互影响。我们表明这些简单的规则能够实现允许网络代表越来越复杂的知识的学习过程,并同时充当促进规划,决策和行为执行的计算设备。通过指定网络的先天(遗传)组件,我们展示了进化如何以初始的自适应规则和目标赋予网络,然后通过学习来丰富。我们展示了网络的开发结构(这决定了大脑可以做些什么以及如何良好)受影响数据输入分布的机制和确定学习参数的机制之间的共同进化协调的批判性影响(在程序中使用按节点和边缘运行)。最后,我们考虑了模型如何占了学习领域的各种调查结果,如何解决思想和行为的一些挑战性问题,例如与设定目标和自我控制相关的问题,以及它如何帮助理解一些认知障碍。
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Curiosity for machine agents has been a focus of lively research activity. The study of human and animal curiosity, particularly specific curiosity, has unearthed several properties that would offer important benefits for machine learners, but that have not yet been well-explored in machine intelligence. In this work, we conduct a comprehensive, multidisciplinary survey of the field of animal and machine curiosity. As a principal contribution of this work, we use this survey as a foundation to introduce and define what we consider to be five of the most important properties of specific curiosity: 1) directedness towards inostensible referents, 2) cessation when satisfied, 3) voluntary exposure, 4) transience, and 5) coherent long-term learning. As a second main contribution of this work, we show how these properties may be implemented together in a proof-of-concept reinforcement learning agent: we demonstrate how the properties manifest in the behaviour of this agent in a simple non-episodic grid-world environment that includes curiosity-inducing locations and induced targets of curiosity. As we would hope, our example of a computational specific curiosity agent exhibits short-term directed behaviour while updating long-term preferences to adaptively seek out curiosity-inducing situations. This work, therefore, presents a landmark synthesis and translation of specific curiosity to the domain of machine learning and reinforcement learning and provides a novel view into how specific curiosity operates and in the future might be integrated into the behaviour of goal-seeking, decision-making computational agents in complex environments.
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复杂的事件识别(CER)系统在过去二十年中变得流行,因为它们能够“立即”检测在实时事件流上的模式。然而,缺乏预测模式可能发生在例如由Cer发动机实际检测到这种发生之前的模式。我们提出了一项正式的框架,试图解决复杂事件预测(CEF)的问题。我们的框架结合了两个形式主义:a)用于编码复杂事件模式的符号自动机; b)预测后缀树,可以提供自动机构的行为的简洁概率描述。我们比较我们提出的方法,以防止最先进的方法,并在准确性和效率方面展示其优势。特别地,预测后缀树是可变的马尔可夫模型,可以通过仅记住足够的信息的过去序列来捕获流中的长期依赖性。我们的实验结果表明了能够捕获这种长期依赖性的准确性的益处。这是通过增加我们模型的顺序来实现的,以满足需要执行给定顺序的所有可能的过去序列的所有可能的过去序列的详尽枚举的全阶马尔可夫模型。我们还广泛讨论CEF解决方案如何最佳地评估其预测的质量。
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There has been a recent resurgence in the area of explainable artificial intelligence as researchers and practitioners seek to make their algorithms more understandable. Much of this research is focused on explicitly explaining decisions or actions to a human observer, and it should not be controversial to say that looking at how humans explain to each other can serve as a useful starting point for explanation in artificial intelligence. However, it is fair to say that most work in explainable artificial intelligence uses only the researchers' intuition of what constitutes a 'good' explanation. There exists vast and valuable bodies of research in philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science of how people define, generate, select, evaluate, and present explanations, which argues that people employ certain cognitive biases and social expectations towards the explanation process. This paper argues that the field of explainable artificial intelligence should build on this existing research, and reviews relevant papers from philosophy, cognitive psychology/science, and social psychology, which study these topics. It draws out some important findings, and discusses ways that these can be infused with work on explainable artificial intelligence.
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在这项调查中,我们回顾了动态认知逻辑,具有量化信息变化的方式。在此类逻辑中,我们提出了完整的公理化,重点关注涉及知识与此类量化器之间相互作用的公理,我们报告了它们的相对表现,可定义性以及模型检查和满意度的复杂性以及应用程序的复杂性。我们专注于开放问题和新的研究方向。
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在过去的几年中,计算机视觉的显着进步总的来说是归因于深度学习,这是由于大量标记数据的可用性所推动的,并与GPU范式的爆炸性增长配对。在订阅这一观点的同时,本书批评了该领域中所谓的科学进步,并在基于信息的自然法则的框架内提出了对愿景的调查。具体而言,目前的作品提出了有关视觉的基本问题,这些问题尚未被理解,引导读者走上了一个由新颖挑战引起的与机器学习基础共鸣的旅程。中心论点是,要深入了解视觉计算过程,有必要超越通用机器学习算法的应用,而要专注于考虑到视觉信号的时空性质的适当学习理论。
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在许多游戏中,动作包括玩家制作的若干决定。这些决定可以被视为单独的动作,这在效率原因的多动作游戏中已经是一个常见的做法。播放器的这种划分进入一系列更简单/较低级别的移动,称为\ emph {拆分}。到目前为止,分裂移动已仅在顾问的直接案件中应用,此外,几乎没有研究揭示其对代理商的影响力量的影响。采取知识的视角,我们的目标是回答如何在Monte-Carlo树搜索(MCT)中有效地使用分裂移动,以及分裂设计对代理的实际影响是什么。本文提出了与任意分裂的动作有用的MCT的概括。我们设计了算法的几种变体,并尝试分别测量分离移动的影响,以分别对效率,MCT,模拟和基于动作的启发式的效率。测试是在一组棋盘游戏上进行,并使用常规的主台综合游戏进行播放形式主义进行,其中可以基于游戏的抽象描述自动派生不同粒度的分裂策略。结果以不同方式使用分流设计的代理行为概述。我们得出结论,拆分设计可能对单一以及多动作游戏有很大的利益。
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我们提出了五个基本的认知科学基本宗旨,我们在相关文献中认真地将其确定为该哲学的主要基本原则。然后,我们开发一个数学框架来讨论符合这些颁布宗旨的认知系统(人造和自然)。特别是我们注意,我们的数学建模并不将内容符号表示形式归因于代理商,并且代理商的大脑,身体和环境的建模方式使它们成为更大整体的不可分割的一部分。目的是为认知创造数学基础,该基础符合颁布主义。我们看到这样做的两个主要好处:(1)它使计算机科学家,AI研究人员,机器人主义者,认知科学家和心理学家更容易获得颁发的思想,并且(2)它为哲学家提供了一种可以使用的数学工具,可以使用它澄清他们的观念并帮助他们的辩论。我们的主要概念是一种感觉运动系统,这是过渡系统研究概念的特殊情况。我们还考虑了相关的概念,例如标记的过渡系统和确定性自动机。我们分析了一个名为“足够的概念”,并表明它是“从颁布主义的角度来看”中“认知数学数学”中基础概念的一个很好的候选者。我们通过证明对最小的完善(在某种意义上与生物体对环境的最佳调整相对应)的独特定理来证明其重要性,并证明充分性与已知的概念相对应,例如足够的历史信息空间。然后,我们开发其他相关概念,例如不足程度,普遍覆盖,等级制度,战略充足。最后,我们将其全部绑架到颁布的宗旨。
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在AI研究中,到目前为止,尽管这一方面在智能系统的功能中突出特征,但对功能和负担的表征和代表的表征和代表的关注一直是零星和稀疏的。迄今为止,零星和稀疏的稀疏努力是对功能和负担的表征和理解,也没有一般框架可以统一与功能概念的表示和应用有关的所有不同使用域和情况。本文开发了这样的一般框架,一种方法强调了一个事实,即所涉及的表示必须是明确的认知和概念性的,它们还必须包含有关涉及的事件和过程的因果特征,并采用了概念上的结构,这些概念结构是扎根的为了达到最大的通用性,他们所指的指南。描述了基本的一般框架,以及一组有关功能表示的基本指南原则。为了正确,充分地表征和表示功能,需要一种描述性表示语言。该语言是定义和开发的,并描述了其使用的许多示例。一般框架是基于一般语言含义表示代表框架的概念依赖性的扩展而开发的。为了支持功能的一般表征和表示,基本的概念依赖框架通过称为结构锚和概念依赖性阐述的代表性设备以及一组地面概念的定义来增强。这些新颖的代表性构建体得到了定义,开发和描述。处理功能的一般框架将代表实现人工智能的重大步骤。
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蒙特卡洛树搜索(MCT)是设计游戏机器人或解决顺序决策问题的强大方法。该方法依赖于平衡探索和开发的智能树搜索。MCT以模拟的形式进行随机抽样,并存储动作的统计数据,以在每个随后的迭代中做出更有教育的选择。然而,该方法已成为组合游戏的最新技术,但是,在更复杂的游戏(例如那些具有较高的分支因素或实时系列的游戏)以及各种实用领域(例如,运输,日程安排或安全性)有效的MCT应用程序通常需要其与问题有关的修改或与其他技术集成。这种特定领域的修改和混合方法是本调查的主要重点。最后一项主要的MCT调查已于2012年发布。自发布以来出现的贡献特别感兴趣。
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每个已知的人工深神经网络(DNN)都对应于规范Grothendieck的拓扑中的一个物体。它的学习动态对应于此拓扑中的形态流动。层中的不变结构(例如CNNS或LSTMS)对应于Giraud的堆栈。这种不变性应该是对概括属性的原因,即从约束下的学习数据中推断出来。纤维代表语义前类别(Culioli,Thom),在该类别上定义了人工语言,内部逻辑,直觉主义者,古典或线性(Girard)。网络的语义功能是其能够用这种语言表达理论的能力,以回答输出数据中有关输出的问题。语义信息的数量和空间是通过类比与2015年香农和D.Bennequin的Shannon熵的同源解释来定义的。他们概括了Carnap和Bar-Hillel(1952)发现的措施。令人惊讶的是,上述语义结构通过封闭模型类别的几何纤维对象进行了分类,然后它们产生了DNNS及其语义功能的同位不变。故意类型的理论(Martin-Loef)组织了这些物体和它们之间的纤维。 Grothendieck的导数分析了信息内容和交流。
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General mathematical reasoning is computationally undecidable, but humans routinely solve new problems. Moreover, discoveries developed over centuries are taught to subsequent generations quickly. What structure enables this, and how might that inform automated mathematical reasoning? We posit that central to both puzzles is the structure of procedural abstractions underlying mathematics. We explore this idea in a case study on 5 sections of beginning algebra on the Khan Academy platform. To define a computational foundation, we introduce Peano, a theorem-proving environment where the set of valid actions at any point is finite. We use Peano to formalize introductory algebra problems and axioms, obtaining well-defined search problems. We observe existing reinforcement learning methods for symbolic reasoning to be insufficient to solve harder problems. Adding the ability to induce reusable abstractions ("tactics") from its own solutions allows an agent to make steady progress, solving all problems. Furthermore, these abstractions induce an order to the problems, seen at random during training. The recovered order has significant agreement with the expert-designed Khan Academy curriculum, and second-generation agents trained on the recovered curriculum learn significantly faster. These results illustrate the synergistic role of abstractions and curricula in the cultural transmission of mathematics.
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Recent progress in artificial intelligence (AI) has renewed interest in building systems that learn and think like people. Many advances have come from using deep neural networks trained end-to-end in tasks such as object recognition, video games, and board games, achieving performance that equals or even beats humans in some respects. Despite their biological inspiration and performance achievements, these systems differ from human intelligence in crucial ways. We review progress in cognitive science suggesting that truly human-like learning and thinking machines will have to reach beyond current engineering trends in both what they learn, and how they learn it. Specifically, we argue that these machines should (a) build causal models of the world that support explanation and understanding, rather than merely solving pattern recognition problems; (b) ground learning in intuitive theories of physics and psychology, to support and enrich the knowledge that is learned; and (c) harness compositionality and learning-to-learn to rapidly acquire and generalize knowledge to new tasks and situations. We suggest concrete challenges and promising routes towards these goals that can combine the strengths of recent neural network advances with more structured cognitive models.
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This volume contains revised versions of the papers selected for the third volume of the Online Handbook of Argumentation for AI (OHAAI). Previously, formal theories of argument and argument interaction have been proposed and studied, and this has led to the more recent study of computational models of argument. Argumentation, as a field within artificial intelligence (AI), is highly relevant for researchers interested in symbolic representations of knowledge and defeasible reasoning. The purpose of this handbook is to provide an open access and curated anthology for the argumentation research community. OHAAI is designed to serve as a research hub to keep track of the latest and upcoming PhD-driven research on the theory and application of argumentation in all areas related to AI.
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