The technology for building knowledge-based systems by inductive inference from examples has been demonstrated successfully in several practical applications. This paper summarizes an approach to synthesizing decision trees that has been used in a variety of systems, and it describes one such system, ID3, in detail. Results from recent studies show ways in which the methodology can be modified to deal with information that is noisy and/or incomplete. A reported shortcoming of the basic algorithm is discussed and two means of overcoming it are compared. The paper concludes with illustrations of current research directions.
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归纳逻辑编程(ILP)是一种机器学习的形式。ILP的目标是诱导推广培训示例的假设(一组逻辑规则)。随着ILP转30,我们提供了对该领域的新介绍。我们介绍了必要的逻辑符号和主要学习环境;描述ILP系统的构建块;比较几个维度的几个系统;描述四个系统(Aleph,Tilde,Aspal和Metagol);突出关键应用领域;最后,总结了未来研究的当前限制和方向。
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Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) is a recently proposed search method that combines the precision of tree search with the generality of random sampling. It has received considerable interest due to its spectacular success in the difficult problem of computer Go, but has also proved beneficial in a range of other domains. This paper is a survey of the literature to date, intended to provide a snapshot of the state of the art after the first five years of MCTS research. We outline the core algorithm's derivation, impart some structure on the many variations and enhancements that have been proposed, and summarise the results from the key game and non-game domains to which MCTS methods have been applied. A number of open research questions indicate that the field is ripe for future work.
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Alphazero,Leela Chess Zero和Stockfish Nnue革新了计算机国际象棋。本书对此类引擎的技术内部工作进行了完整的介绍。该书分为四个主要章节 - 不包括第1章(简介)和第6章(结论):第2章引入神经网络,涵盖了所有用于构建深层网络的基本构建块,例如Alphazero使用的网络。内容包括感知器,后传播和梯度下降,分类,回归,多层感知器,矢量化技术,卷积网络,挤压网络,挤压和激发网络,完全连接的网络,批处理归一化和横向归一化和跨性线性单位,残留层,剩余层,过度效果和底漆。第3章介绍了用于国际象棋发动机以及Alphazero使用的经典搜索技术。内容包括minimax,alpha-beta搜索和蒙特卡洛树搜索。第4章展示了现代国际象棋发动机的设计。除了开创性的Alphago,Alphago Zero和Alphazero我们涵盖Leela Chess Zero,Fat Fritz,Fat Fritz 2以及有效更新的神经网络(NNUE)以及MAIA。第5章是关于实施微型α。 Shexapawn是国际象棋的简约版本,被用作为此的示例。 Minimax搜索可以解决六ap峰,并产生了监督学习的培训位置。然后,作为比较,实施了类似Alphazero的训练回路,其中通过自我游戏进行训练与强化学习结合在一起。最后,比较了类似α的培训和监督培训。
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分类链是一种用于在多标签分类中建模标签依赖性的有效技术。但是,该方法需要标签的固定静态顺序。虽然理论上,任何顺序都足够了,实际上,该订单对最终预测的质量具有大量影响。动态分类链表示每个实例对分类的想法,可以动态选择预测标签的顺序。这种方法的天真实现的复杂性是禁止的,因为它需要训练一系列分类器,以满足标签的每种可能置换。为了有效地解决这个问题,我们提出了一种基于随机决策树的新方法,该方法可以动态地选择每个预测的标签排序。我们凭经验展示了下一个标签的动态选择,通过在否则不变的随机决策树模型下使用静态排序。 %和实验环境。此外,我们还展示了基于极端梯度提升树的替代方法,其允许更具目标的动态分级链训练。我们的结果表明,该变体优于随机决策树和其他基于树的多标签分类方法。更重要的是,动态选择策略允许大大加速培训和预测。
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保证案件旨在为其最高主张的真理提供合理的信心,这通常涉及安全或保障。那么一个自然的问题是,案件提供了“多少”信心?我们认为,置信度不能简化为单个属性或测量。取而代之的是,我们建议它应该基于以三种不同观点的属性为基础:正面,消极和残留疑问。积极的观点考虑了该案件的证据和总体论点结合起来的程度,以表明其主张的信念是正当的。我们为理由设置了一个高标准,要求它是不可行的。对此的主要积极度量是健全性,它将论点解释为逻辑证明。对证据的信心可以概率地表达,我们使用确认措施来确保证据的“权重”跨越了一定的阈值。此外,可以通过使用概率逻辑的参数步骤从证据中汇总概率,以产生我们所谓的索赔概率估值。负面观点记录了对案件的怀疑和挑战,通常表示为叛逆者及其探索和解决。保证开发商必须防止确认偏见,并应在制定案件时大力探索潜在的叛逆者,并应记录下来及其解决方案,以避免返工并帮助审阅者。残留疑问:世界不确定,因此并非所有潜在的叛逆者都可以解决。我们探索风险,可能认为它们是可以接受或不可避免的。但是,至关重要的是,这些判断是有意识的判断,并且在保证案例中记录下来。本报告详细介绍了这些观点,并指示了我们的保证2.0的原型工具集如何协助他们的评估。
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即使机器学习算法已经在数据科学中发挥了重要作用,但许多当前方法对输入数据提出了不现实的假设。由于不兼容的数据格式,或数据集中的异质,分层或完全缺少的数据片段,因此很难应用此类方法。作为解决方案,我们提出了一个用于样本表示,模型定义和培训的多功能,统一的框架,称为“ Hmill”。我们深入审查框架构建和扩展的机器学习的多个范围范式。从理论上讲,为HMILL的关键组件的设计合理,我们将通用近似定理的扩展显示到框架中实现的模型所实现的所有功能的集合。本文还包含有关我们实施中技术和绩效改进的详细讨论,该讨论将在MIT许可下发布供下载。该框架的主要资产是其灵活性,它可以通过相同的工具对不同的现实世界数据源进行建模。除了单独观察到每个对象的一组属性的标准设置外,我们解释了如何在框架中实现表示整个对象系统的图表中的消息推断。为了支持我们的主张,我们使用框架解决了网络安全域的三个不同问题。第一种用例涉及来自原始网络观察结果的IoT设备识别。在第二个问题中,我们研究了如何使用以有向图表示的操作系统的快照可以对恶意二进制文件进行分类。最后提供的示例是通过网络中实体之间建模域黑名单扩展的任务。在所有三个问题中,基于建议的框架的解决方案可实现与专业方法相当的性能。
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这篇综述的目的是将读者介绍到图表内,以将其应用于化学信息学中的分类问题。图内核是使我们能够推断分子的化学特性的功能,可以帮助您完成诸如寻找适合药物设计的化合物等任务。内核方法的使用只是一种特殊的两种方式量化了图之间的相似性。我们将讨论限制在这种方法上,尽管近年来已经出现了流行的替代方法,但最著名的是图形神经网络。
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神经网络(NNS)和决策树(DTS)都是机器学习的流行模型,但具有相互排斥的优势和局限性。为了带来两个世界中的最好,提出了各种方法来明确或隐式地集成NN和DTS。在这项调查中,这些方法是在我们称为神经树(NTS)的学校中组织的。这项调查旨在对NTS进行全面审查,并尝试确定它们如何增强模型的解释性。我们首先提出了NTS的彻底分类学,该分类法表达了NNS和DTS的逐步整合和共同进化。之后,我们根据NTS的解释性和绩效分析,并建议解决其余挑战的可能解决方案。最后,这项调查以讨论有条件计算和向该领域的有希望的方向进行讨论结束。该调查中审查的论文列表及其相应的代码可在以下网址获得:https://github.com/zju-vipa/awesome-neural-trees
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There has been a recent resurgence in the area of explainable artificial intelligence as researchers and practitioners seek to make their algorithms more understandable. Much of this research is focused on explicitly explaining decisions or actions to a human observer, and it should not be controversial to say that looking at how humans explain to each other can serve as a useful starting point for explanation in artificial intelligence. However, it is fair to say that most work in explainable artificial intelligence uses only the researchers' intuition of what constitutes a 'good' explanation. There exists vast and valuable bodies of research in philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science of how people define, generate, select, evaluate, and present explanations, which argues that people employ certain cognitive biases and social expectations towards the explanation process. This paper argues that the field of explainable artificial intelligence should build on this existing research, and reviews relevant papers from philosophy, cognitive psychology/science, and social psychology, which study these topics. It draws out some important findings, and discusses ways that these can be infused with work on explainable artificial intelligence.
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系统发育比较方法在我们的领域是新的,并且对于大多数语言学家来说,至少有一点谜团。然而,导致他们在比较生物学中发现的道路与平衡抽样的方法论历史如此类似,这只是一个历史的事故,即他们没有被典型的专家发现。在这里,我们澄清了系统发育比较方法背后的基本逻辑及其对重点采样的深刻智力传统的基本相关性。然后我们介绍将在日常类型的研究中使用类型的概念,方法和工具,使类型学家能够在日常类型的研究中使用这些方法。系统发育比较方法和平衡采样的关键共性是他们试图因系谱而应对统计非独立性。虽然采样永远不会实现独立性,但需要大多数比较数据被丢弃,系统发育比较方法在保留和使用所有数据的同时实现独立性。我们讨论了系统发育信号的基本概念;关于树木的不确定性;典型的类型学平均值和比例对族谱敏感;跨语言家庭的比较;和体现的影响。广泛的补充材料说明了实际分析的计算工具,我们说明了与帕马尼云根腭膜对比的类型学案例研究讨论的方法。
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随着优化软件的显着改进,几十年前似乎棘手的大规模问题的解决方案现在已成为日常任务。这将更多的现实应用程序纳入了优化器的范围。同时,解决优化问题通常是将解决方案付诸实践时较小的困难之一。一个主要的障碍是,可以将优化软件视为黑匣子,它可能会产生高质量的解决方案,但是当情况发生变化时,可以创建完全不同的解决方案,从而导致对优化解决方案的接受率低。这种可解释性和解释性的问题在其他领域(例如机器学习)引起了极大的关注,但在优化方面却不那么关注。在本文中,我们提出了一个优化框架,以得出本质上具有易于理解的解释性规则的解决方案,在哪些情况下应选择解决方案。我们专注于代表解释性规则的决策树,我们提出了整数编程公式以及一种启发式方法,以确保我们的方法即使在大规模问题上也适用。使用随机和现实世界数据的计算实验表明,固有的可解释性成本可能很小。
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Label noise is an important issue in classification, with many potential negative consequences. For example, the accuracy of predictions may decrease, whereas the complexity of inferred models and the number of necessary training samples may increase. Many works in the literature have been devoted to the study of label noise and the development of techniques to deal with label noise. However, the field lacks a comprehensive survey on the different types of label noise, their consequences and the algorithms that consider label noise. This paper proposes to fill this gap. First, the definitions and sources of label noise are considered and a taxonomy of the types of label noise is proposed. Second, the potential consequences of label noise are discussed. Third, label noise-robust, label noise cleansing, and label noise-tolerant algorithms are reviewed. For each category of approaches, a short discussion is proposed to help the practitioner to choose the most suitable technique in its own particular field of application. Eventually, the design of experiments is also discussed, what may interest the researchers who would like to test their own algorithms. In this paper, label noise consists of mislabeled instances: no additional information is assumed to be available like e.g. confidences on labels.
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The notion of uncertainty is of major importance in machine learning and constitutes a key element of machine learning methodology. In line with the statistical tradition, uncertainty has long been perceived as almost synonymous with standard probability and probabilistic predictions. Yet, due to the steadily increasing relevance of machine learning for practical applications and related issues such as safety requirements, new problems and challenges have recently been identified by machine learning scholars, and these problems may call for new methodological developments. In particular, this includes the importance of distinguishing between (at least) two different types of uncertainty, often referred to as aleatoric and epistemic. In this paper, we provide an introduction to the topic of uncertainty in machine learning as well as an overview of attempts so far at handling uncertainty in general and formalizing this distinction in particular.
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在这项工作中,我们对基本思想和新颖的发展进行了综述的综述,这是基于最小的假设的一种无创新的,无分配的,非参数预测的方法 - 能够以非常简单的方式预测集屈服在有限样本案例中,在统计意义上也有效。论文中提供的深入讨论涵盖了共形预测的理论基础,然后继续列出原始想法的更高级的发展和改编。
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对比模式挖掘(CPM)是数据挖掘的重要且流行的子场。传统的顺序模式无法描述不同类别数据之间的对比度信息,而涉及对比概念的对比模式可以描述不同对比条件下数据集之间的显着差异。根据该领域发表的论文数量,我们发现研究人员对CPM的兴趣仍然活跃。由于CPM有许多研究问题和研究方法。该领域的新研究人员很难在短时间内了解该领域的一般状况。因此,本文的目的是为对比模式挖掘的研究方向提供最新的全面概述。首先,我们对CPM提出了深入的理解,包括评估歧视能力的基本概念,类型,采矿策略和指标。然后,我们根据CPM方法根据其特征分类为基于边界的算法,基于树的算法,基于进化模糊的系统算法,基于决策树的算法和其他算法。此外,我们列出了这些方法的经典算法,并讨论它们的优势和缺点。提出了CPM中的高级主题。最后,我们通过讨论该领域的挑战和机遇来结束调查。
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This paper proposes a new tree-based ensemble method for supervised classification and regression problems. It essentially consists of randomizing strongly both attribute and cut-point choice while splitting a tree node. In the extreme case, it builds totally randomized trees whose structures are independent of the output values of the learning sample. The strength of the randomization can be tuned to problem specifics by the appropriate choice of a parameter. We evaluate the robustness of the default choice of this parameter, and we also provide insight on how to adjust it in particular situations. Besides accuracy, the main strength of the resulting algorithm is computational efficiency. A bias/variance analysis of the Extra-Trees algorithm is also provided as well as a geometrical and a kernel characterization of the models induced.
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基于机器学习(ML)的系统的制作需要在其生命周期中进行统计控制。仔细量化业务需求和识别影响业务需求的关键因素降低了项目故障的风险。业务需求的量化导致随机变量的定义,表示通过统计实验需要分析的系统关键性能指标。此外,可提供的培训和实验结果产生影响系统的设计。开发系统后,测试并不断监控,以确保其符合其业务需求。这是通过持续应用统计实验来分析和控制关键绩效指标来完成的。本书教授制作和开发基于ML的系统的艺术。它倡导“首先”方法,强调从项目生命周期开始定义统计实验的需要。它还详细讨论了如何在整个生命周期中对基于ML的系统进行统计控制。
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We review clustering as an analysis tool and the underlying concepts from an introductory perspective. What is clustering and how can clusterings be realised programmatically? How can data be represented and prepared for a clustering task? And how can clustering results be validated? Connectivity-based versus prototype-based approaches are reflected in the context of several popular methods: single-linkage, spectral embedding, k-means, and Gaussian mixtures are discussed as well as the density-based protocols (H)DBSCAN, Jarvis-Patrick, CommonNN, and density-peaks.
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我们建议使用基于规则的技术加速系统级调试的根源程序。我们描述了该过程及其如何提供高质量的调试提示,以减少调试工作。这包括来自许多测试日志的工程功能的启发式方法,以及用于生成强大调试提示的数据分析技术。作为案例研究,我们将这些技术用于电源管理(PM)设计功能软件包C8的根源失败,并显示了它们的有效性。此外,我们提出了一种挖掘引起根源的经验和重用结果,加速未来调试活动并减少对验证专家的依赖的方法。我们认为,这些技术也对不同级别的抽象级别的其他验证活动也有益,对于复杂的硬件,软件和固件系统,包括前硅和后硅。
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