Learning goal-directed behavior in environments with sparse feedback is a major challenge for reinforcement learning algorithms. The primary difficulty arises due to insufficient exploration, resulting in an agent being unable to learn robust value functions. Intrinsically motivated agents can explore new behavior for its own sake rather than to directly solve problems. Such intrinsic behaviors could eventually help the agent solve tasks posed by the environment. We present hierarchical-DQN (h-DQN), a framework to integrate hierarchical value functions, operating at different temporal scales, with intrinsically motivated deep reinforcement learning. A top-level value function learns a policy over intrinsic goals, and a lower-level function learns a policy over atomic actions to satisfy the given goals. h-DQN allows for flexible goal specifications, such as functions over entities and relations. This provides an efficient space for exploration in complicated environments. We demonstrate the strength of our approach on two problems with very sparse, delayed feedback: (1) a complex discrete stochastic decision process, and (2) the classic ATARI game 'Montezuma's Revenge'.

We present the first deep learning model to successfully learn control policies directly from high-dimensional sensory input using reinforcement learning. The model is a convolutional neural network, trained with a variant of Q-learning, whose input is raw pixels and whose output is a value function estimating future rewards. We apply our method to seven Atari 2600 games from the Arcade Learning Environment, with no adjustment of the architecture or learning algorithm. We find that it outperforms all previous approaches on six of the games and surpasses a human expert on three of them.

在本文中，我们提出了一种新的马尔可夫决策过程学习分层表示的方法。我们的方法通过将状态空间划分为子集，并定义用于在分区之间执行转换的子任务。我们制定将状态空间作为优化问题分区的问题，该优化问题可以使用梯度下降给出一组采样的轨迹来解决，使我们的方法适用于大状态空间的高维问题。我们经验验证方法，通过表示它可以成功地在导航域中成功学习有用的分层表示。一旦了解到，分层表示可以用于解决给定域中的不同任务，从而概括跨任务的知识。

尽管在现实生活中取得了巨大成功，但深度加固学习（DRL）仍遭受三个关键问题，这是数据效率，缺乏可解释性和可转移性。最近的研究表明，将符号知识嵌入DRL是有希望解决这些挑战。灵感来自于此，我们介绍了一种具有象征性选项的新型深度加强学习框架。此框架具有循环培训程序，可通过规划自动从交互式轨迹中学到的行动模型和符号选项来指导政策的改进。学习的象征选项减轻了专家领域知识的密集要求，并提供了政策的内在可意识性。此外，通过使用动作模型规划，可以进一步提高可转移和数据效率。为了验证这一框架的有效性，我们分别对两个域名，蒙特沙姆的复仇和办公室世界进行实验。结果证明了可比性，提高了数据效率，可解释性和可转移性。

Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning (HRL) algorithms have been demonstrated to perform well on high-dimensional decision making and robotic control tasks. However, because they solely optimize for rewards, the agent tends to search the same space redundantly. This problem reduces the speed of learning and achieved reward. In this work, we present an Off-Policy HRL algorithm that maximizes entropy for efficient exploration. The algorithm learns a temporally abstracted low-level policy and is able to explore broadly through the addition of entropy to the high-level. The novelty of this work is the theoretical motivation of adding entropy to the RL objective in the HRL setting. We empirically show that the entropy can be added to both levels if the Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence between consecutive updates of the low-level policy is sufficiently small. We performed an ablative study to analyze the effects of entropy on hierarchy, in which adding entropy to high-level emerged as the most desirable configuration. Furthermore, a higher temperature in the low-level leads to Q-value overestimation and increases the stochasticity of the environment that the high-level operates on, making learning more challenging. Our method, SHIRO, surpasses state-of-the-art performance on a range of simulated robotic control benchmark tasks and requires minimal tuning.

Deep reinforcement learning is poised to revolutionise the field of AI and represents a step towards building autonomous systems with a higher level understanding of the visual world. Currently, deep learning is enabling reinforcement learning to scale to problems that were previously intractable, such as learning to play video games directly from pixels. Deep reinforcement learning algorithms are also applied to robotics, allowing control policies for robots to be learned directly from camera inputs in the real world. In this survey, we begin with an introduction to the general field of reinforcement learning, then progress to the main streams of value-based and policybased methods. Our survey will cover central algorithms in deep reinforcement learning, including the deep Q-network, trust region policy optimisation, and asynchronous advantage actor-critic. In parallel, we highlight the unique advantages of deep neural networks, focusing on visual understanding via reinforcement learning. To conclude, we describe several current areas of research within the field.

增强学习（RL）研究领域非常活跃，并具有重要的新贡献；特别是考虑到深RL（DRL）的新兴领域。但是，仍然需要解决许多科学和技术挑战，其中我们可以提及抽象行动的能力或在稀疏回报环境中探索环境的难以通过内在动机（IM）来解决的。我们建议通过基于信息理论的新分类法调查这些研究工作：我们在计算上重新审视了惊喜，新颖性和技能学习的概念。这使我们能够确定方法的优势和缺点，并展示当前的研究前景。我们的分析表明，新颖性和惊喜可以帮助建立可转移技能的层次结构，从而进一步抽象环境并使勘探过程更加健壮。

建立可以探索开放式环境的自主机器，发现可能的互动，自主构建技能的曲目是人工智能的一般目标。发展方法争辩说，这只能通过可以生成，选择和学习解决自己问题的自主和本质上动机的学习代理人来实现。近年来，我们已经看到了发育方法的融合，特别是发展机器人，具有深度加强学习（RL）方法，形成了发展机器学习的新领域。在这个新域中，我们在这里审查了一组方法，其中深入RL算法训练，以解决自主获取的开放式曲目的发展机器人问题。本质上动机的目标条件RL算法训练代理商学习代表，产生和追求自己的目标。自我生成目标需要学习紧凑的目标编码以及它们的相关目标 - 成就函数，这导致与传统的RL算法相比，这导致了新的挑战，该算法设计用于使用外部奖励信号解决预定义的目标集。本文提出了在深度RL和发育方法的交叉口中进行了这些方法的类型，调查了最近的方法并讨论了未来的途径。

长期的Horizo​​n机器人学习任务稀疏的奖励对当前的强化学习算法构成了重大挑战。使人类能够学习挑战的控制任务的关键功能是，他们经常获得专家干预，使他们能够在掌握低级控制动作之前了解任务的高级结构。我们为利用专家干预来解决长马增强学习任务的框架。我们考虑\ emph {选项模板}，这是编码可以使用强化学习训练的潜在选项的规格。我们将专家干预提出，因为允许代理商在学习实施之前执行选项模板。这使他们能够使用选项，然后才能为学习成本昂贵的资源学习。我们在三个具有挑战性的强化学习问题上评估了我们的方法，这表明它的表现要优于最先进的方法。训练有素的代理商和我们的代码视频可以在以下网址找到：https：//sites.google.com/view/stickymittens

深度强化学习（DRL）和深度多机构的强化学习（MARL）在包括游戏AI，自动驾驶汽车，机器人技术等各种领域取得了巨大的成功。但是，众所周知，DRL和Deep MARL代理的样本效率低下，即使对于相对简单的问题设置，通常也需要数百万个相互作用，从而阻止了在实地场景中的广泛应用和部署。背后的一个瓶颈挑战是众所周知的探索问题，即如何有效地探索环境和收集信息丰富的经验，从而使政策学习受益于最佳研究。在稀疏的奖励，吵闹的干扰，长距离和非平稳的共同学习者的复杂环境中，这个问题变得更加具有挑战性。在本文中，我们对单格和多代理RL的现有勘探方法进行了全面的调查。我们通过确定有效探索的几个关键挑战开始调查。除了上述两个主要分支外，我们还包括其他具有不同思想和技术的著名探索方法。除了算法分析外，我们还对一组常用基准的DRL进行了全面和统一的经验比较。根据我们的算法和实证研究，我们终于总结了DRL和Deep Marl中探索的公开问题，并指出了一些未来的方向。

With the development of deep representation learning, the domain of reinforcement learning (RL) has become a powerful learning framework now capable of learning complex policies in high dimensional environments. This review summarises deep reinforcement learning (DRL) algorithms and provides a taxonomy of automated driving tasks where (D)RL methods have been employed, while addressing key computational challenges in real world deployment of autonomous driving agents. It also delineates adjacent domains such as behavior cloning, imitation learning, inverse reinforcement learning that are related but are not classical RL algorithms. The role of simulators in training agents, methods to validate, test and robustify existing solutions in RL are discussed.

许多现实世界的应用程序都可以作为多机构合作问题进行配置，例如网络数据包路由和自动驾驶汽车的协调。深入增强学习（DRL）的出现为通过代理和环境的相互作用提供了一种有前途的多代理合作方法。但是，在政策搜索过程中，传统的DRL解决方案遭受了多个代理具有连续动作空间的高维度。此外，代理商政策的动态性使训练非平稳。为了解决这些问题，我们建议采用高级决策和低水平的个人控制，以进行有效的政策搜索，提出一种分层增强学习方法。特别是，可以在高级离散的动作空间中有效地学习多个代理的合作。同时，低水平的个人控制可以减少为单格强化学习。除了分层增强学习外，我们还建议对手建模网络在学习过程中对其他代理的政策进行建模。与端到端的DRL方法相反，我们的方法通过以层次结构将整体任务分解为子任务来降低学习的复杂性。为了评估我们的方法的效率，我们在合作车道变更方案中进行了现实世界中的案例研究。模拟和现实世界实验都表明我们的方法在碰撞速度和收敛速度中的优越性。

在人类中，感知意识促进了来自感官输入的快速识别和提取信息。这种意识在很大程度上取决于人类代理人如何与环境相互作用。在这项工作中，我们提出了主动神经生成编码，用于学习动作驱动的生成模型的计算框架，而不会在动态环境中反正出错误（Backprop）。具体而言，我们开发了一种智能代理，即使具有稀疏奖励，也可以从规划的认知理论中汲取灵感。我们展示了我们框架与深度Q学习竞争力的几个简单的控制问题。我们的代理的强劲表现提供了有希望的证据，即神经推断和学习的无背方法可以推动目标定向行为。

Efficient exploration remains a major challenge for reinforcement learning (RL). Common dithering strategies for exploration, such as -greedy, do not carry out temporally-extended (or deep) exploration; this can lead to exponentially larger data requirements. However, most algorithms for statistically efficient RL are not computationally tractable in complex environments. Randomized value functions offer a promising approach to efficient exploration with generalization, but existing algorithms are not compatible with nonlinearly parameterized value functions. As a first step towards addressing such contexts we develop bootstrapped DQN. We demonstrate that bootstrapped DQN can combine deep exploration with deep neural networks for exponentially faster learning than any dithering strategy. In the Arcade Learning Environment bootstrapped DQN substantially improves learning speed and cumulative performance across most games.

Hierarchical decomposition of control is unavoidable in large dynamical systems. In reinforcement learning (RL), it is usually solved with subgoals defined at higher policy levels and achieved at lower policy levels. Reaching these goals can take a substantial amount of time, during which it is not verified whether they are still worth pursuing. However, due to the randomness of the environment, these goals may become obsolete. In this paper, we address this gap in the state-of-the-art approaches and propose a method in which the validity of higher-level actions (thus lower-level goals) is constantly verified at the higher level. If the actions, i.e. lower level goals, become inadequate, they are replaced by more appropriate ones. This way we combine the advantages of hierarchical RL, which is fast training, and flat RL, which is immediate reactivity. We study our approach experimentally on seven benchmark environments.

我们提出了一种层次结构的增强学习方法Hidio，可以以自我监督的方式学习任务不合时宜的选项，同时共同学习利用它们来解决稀疏的奖励任务。与当前倾向于制定目标的低水平任务或预定临时的低级政策不同的层次RL方法不同，Hidio鼓励下级选项学习与手头任务无关，几乎不需要假设或很少的知识任务结构。这些选项是通过基于选项子对象的固有熵最小化目标来学习的。博学的选择是多种多样的，任务不可能的。在稀疏的机器人操作和导航任务的实验中，Hidio比常规RL基准和两种最先进的层次RL方法，其样品效率更高。

Atari games have been a long-standing benchmark in the reinforcement learning (RL) community for the past decade. This benchmark was proposed to test general competency of RL algorithms. Previous work has achieved good average performance by doing outstandingly well on many games of the set, but very poorly in several of the most challenging games. We propose Agent57, the first deep RL agent that outperforms the standard human benchmark on all 57 Atari games. To achieve this result, we train a neural network which parameterizes a family of policies ranging from very exploratory to purely exploitative. We propose an adaptive mechanism to choose which policy to prioritize throughout the training process. Additionally, we utilize a novel parameterization of the architecture that allows for more consistent and stable learning.

使用强化学习解决复杂的问题必须将问题分解为可管理的任务，无论是明确或隐式的任务，并学习解决这些任务的政策。反过来，这些政策必须由采取高级决策的总体政策来控制。这需要培训算法在学习这些政策时考虑这种等级决策结构。但是，实践中的培训可能会导致泛化不良，要么在很少的时间步骤执行动作，要么将其全部转变为单个政策。在我们的工作中，我们介绍了一种替代方法来依次学习此类技能，而无需使用总体层次的政策。我们在环境的背景下提出了这种方法，在这种环境的背景下，学习代理目标的主要组成部分是尽可能长时间延长情节。我们将我们提出的方法称为顺序选择评论家。我们在我们开发的灵活的模拟3D导航环境中演示了我们在导航和基于目标任务的方法的实用性。我们还表明，我们的方法优于先前的方法，例如在我们的环境中，柔软的演员和软选择评论家，以及健身房自动驾驶汽车模拟器和Atari River RAID RAID环境。

顺序决策的两种常见方法是AI计划（AIP）和强化学习（RL）。每个都有优点和缺点。 AIP是可解释的，易于与象征知识集成，并且通常是有效的，但需要前期逻辑域的规范，并且对噪声敏感； RL仅需要奖励的规范，并且对噪声是强大的，但效率低下，不容易提供外部知识。我们提出了一种综合方法，将高级计划与RL结合在一起，保留可解释性，转移和效率，同时允许对低级计划行动进行强有力的学习。我们的方法通过在AI计划问题的状态过渡模型与Markov决策过程（MDP）的抽象状态过渡系统（MDP）之间建立对应关系，从而定义了AIP操作员的分层增强学习（HRL）的选项。通过添加内在奖励来鼓励MDP和AIP过渡模型之间的一致性来学习选项。我们通过比较Minigrid和N房间环境中RL和HRL算法的性能来证明我们的综合方法的好处，从而显示了我们方法比现有方法的优势。