Increasingly high-stakes decisions are made using neural networks in order to make predictions. Specifically, meteorologists and hedge funds apply these techniques to time series data. When it comes to prediction, there are certain limitations for machine learning models (such as lack of expressiveness, vulnerability of domain shifts and overconfidence) which can be solved using uncertainty estimation. There is a set of expectations regarding how uncertainty should ``behave". For instance, a wider prediction horizon should lead to more uncertainty or the model's confidence should be proportional to its accuracy. In this paper, different uncertainty estimation methods are compared to forecast meteorological time series data and evaluate these expectations. The results show how each uncertainty estimation method performs on the forecasting task, which partially evaluates the robustness of predicted uncertainty.

神经网络中的不确定性量化有望增加AI系统的安全性，但目前尚不清楚培训集大小如何变化。在本文中，我们评估了七种在时尚Mnist和CiFar10上的不确定性方法，因为我们子样本并产生各种训练套装尺寸。我们发现校准误差和分配检测性能强烈依赖于训练集大小，大多数方法在具有小型训练集的测试集上被错误化。基于梯度的方法似乎估计了估计的认识性不确定性，并且是受训练集规模受影响最大的。我们希望我们的结果可以指导未来的不确定性量化研究，并帮助从业者根据其特定的可用数据选择方法。

最近实现了更准确的短期预测的数据驱动的空气质量预测。尽管取得了成功，但大多数目前的数据驱动解决方案都缺乏适当的模型不确定性的量化，以传达信任预测的程度。最近，在概率深度学习中已经制定了几种估计不确定性的实用工具。但是，在空气质量预测领域的域中没有经验应用和广泛的比较这些工具。因此，这项工作在空气质量预测的真实环境中应用了最先进的不确定性量化。通过广泛的实验，我们描述了培训概率模型，并根据经验性能，信心可靠性，置信度估计和实际适用性评估其预测性不确定性。我们还使用空气质量数据中固有的“自由”对抗培训和利用时间和空间相关性提出改善这些模型。我们的实验表明，所提出的模型比以前的工作更好地在量化数据驱动空气质量预测中的不确定性方面表现出。总体而言，贝叶斯神经网络提供了更可靠的不确定性估计，但可能挑战实施和规模。其他可扩展方法，如深合奏，蒙特卡罗（MC）辍学和随机重量平均-Gaussian（SWAG）可以执行良好，如果正确应用，但具有不同的权衡和性能度量的轻微变化。最后，我们的结果表明了不确定性估计的实际影响，并证明了，实际上，概率模型更适合提出知情决策。代码和数据集可用于\ url {https:/github.com/abdulmajid-murad/deep_probabilistic_forecast}

Deep neural networks (NNs) are powerful black box predictors that have recently achieved impressive performance on a wide spectrum of tasks. Quantifying predictive uncertainty in NNs is a challenging and yet unsolved problem. Bayesian NNs, which learn a distribution over weights, are currently the state-of-the-art for estimating predictive uncertainty; however these require significant modifications to the training procedure and are computationally expensive compared to standard (non-Bayesian) NNs. We propose an alternative to Bayesian NNs that is simple to implement, readily parallelizable, requires very little hyperparameter tuning, and yields high quality predictive uncertainty estimates. Through a series of experiments on classification and regression benchmarks, we demonstrate that our method produces well-calibrated uncertainty estimates which are as good or better than approximate Bayesian NNs. To assess robustness to dataset shift, we evaluate the predictive uncertainty on test examples from known and unknown distributions, and show that our method is able to express higher uncertainty on out-of-distribution examples. We demonstrate the scalability of our method by evaluating predictive uncertainty estimates on ImageNet.

人工神经网络无法评估其预测的不确定性是对它们广泛使用的障碍。我们区分了两种类型的可学习不确定性：由于缺乏训练数据和噪声引起的观察不确定性而导致的模型不确定性。贝叶斯神经网络使用坚实的数学基础来学习其预测的模型不确定性。观察不确定性可以通过在这些网络中添加一层并增强其损失功能来计算观察不确定性。我们的贡献是将这些不确定性概念应用于预测过程监控任务中，以训练基于不确定性的模型以预测剩余时间和结果。我们的实验表明，不确定性估计值允许分化更多和不准确的预测，并在回归和分类任务中构建置信区间。即使在运行过程的早期阶段，这些结论仍然是正确的。此外，部署的技术是快速的，并产生了更准确的预测。学习的不确定性可以增加用户对其流程预测系统的信心，促进人类与这些系统之间的更好合作，并通过较小的数据集实现早期的实施。

不确定性量化对于机器人感知至关重要，因为过度自信或点估计人员可以导致环境和机器人侵犯和损害。在本文中，我们评估了单视图监督深度学习中的不确定量化的可扩展方法，特别是MC辍学和深度集成。特别是对于MC辍学，我们探讨了阵列在架构中不同级别的效果。我们表明，在编码器的所有层中添加丢失会带来比文献中的其他变化更好的结果。此配置类似地执行与Deep Ensembles具有更低的内存占用，这是相关的简单。最后，我们探讨了伪RGBD ICP的深度不确定性，并展示其估计具有实际规模的准确的双视图相对运动的可能性。

在过去几十年中，已经提出了各种方法，用于估计回归设置中的预测间隔，包括贝叶斯方法，集合方法，直接间隔估计方法和保形预测方法。重要问题是这些方法的校准：生成的预测间隔应该具有预定义的覆盖水平，而不会过于保守。在这项工作中，我们从概念和实验的角度审查上述四类方法。结果来自各个域的基准数据集突出显示从一个数据集中的性能的大波动。这些观察可能归因于违反某些类别的某些方法所固有的某些假设。我们说明了如何将共形预测用作提供不具有校准步骤的方法的方法的一般校准程序。

Modern machine learning methods including deep learning have achieved great success in predictive accuracy for supervised learning tasks, but may still fall short in giving useful estimates of their predictive uncertainty. Quantifying uncertainty is especially critical in real-world settings, which often involve input distributions that are shifted from the training distribution due to a variety of factors including sample bias and non-stationarity. In such settings, well calibrated uncertainty estimates convey information about when a model's output should (or should not) be trusted. Many probabilistic deep learning methods, including Bayesian-and non-Bayesian methods, have been proposed in the literature for quantifying predictive uncertainty, but to our knowledge there has not previously been a rigorous largescale empirical comparison of these methods under dataset shift. We present a largescale benchmark of existing state-of-the-art methods on classification problems and investigate the effect of dataset shift on accuracy and calibration. We find that traditional post-hoc calibration does indeed fall short, as do several other previous methods. However, some methods that marginalize over models give surprisingly strong results across a broad spectrum of tasks.

Trainable evaluation metrics for machine translation (MT) exhibit strong correlation with human judgements, but they are often hard to interpret and might produce unreliable scores under noisy or out-of-domain data. Recent work has attempted to mitigate this with simple uncertainty quantification techniques (Monte Carlo dropout and deep ensembles), however these techniques (as we show) are limited in several ways -- for example, they are unable to distinguish between different kinds of uncertainty, and they are time and memory consuming. In this paper, we propose more powerful and efficient uncertainty predictors for MT evaluation, and we assess their ability to target different sources of aleatoric and epistemic uncertainty. To this end, we develop and compare training objectives for the COMET metric to enhance it with an uncertainty prediction output, including heteroscedastic regression, divergence minimization, and direct uncertainty prediction. Our experiments show improved results on uncertainty prediction for the WMT metrics task datasets, with a substantial reduction in computational costs. Moreover, they demonstrate the ability of these predictors to address specific uncertainty causes in MT evaluation, such as low quality references and out-of-domain data.

我们研究了回归中神经网络（NNS）的模型不确定性的方法。为了隔离模型不确定性的效果，我们专注于稀缺训练数据的无噪声环境。我们介绍了关于任何方法都应满足的模型不确定性的五个重要的逃亡者。但是，我们发现，建立的基准通常无法可靠地捕获其中一些逃避者，即使是贝叶斯理论要求的基准。为了解决这个问题，我们介绍了一种新方法来捕获NNS的模型不确定性，我们称之为基于神经优化的模型不确定性（NOMU）。 NOMU的主要思想是设计一个由两个连接的子NN组成的网络体系结构，一个用于模型预测，一个用于模型不确定性，并使用精心设计的损耗函数进行训练。重要的是，我们的设计执行NOMU满足我们的五个Desiderata。由于其模块化体系结构，NOMU可以为任何给定（先前训练）NN提供模型不确定性，如果访问其培训数据。我们在各种回归任务和无嘈杂的贝叶斯优化（BO）中评估NOMU，并具有昂贵的评估。在回归中，NOMU至少和最先进的方法。在BO中，Nomu甚至胜过所有考虑的基准。

Objective: Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have demonstrated promise in automated cardiac magnetic resonance image segmentation. However, when using CNNs in a large real-world dataset, it is important to quantify segmentation uncertainty and identify segmentations which could be problematic. In this work, we performed a systematic study of Bayesian and non-Bayesian methods for estimating uncertainty in segmentation neural networks. Methods: We evaluated Bayes by Backprop, Monte Carlo Dropout, Deep Ensembles, and Stochastic Segmentation Networks in terms of segmentation accuracy, probability calibration, uncertainty on out-of-distribution images, and segmentation quality control. Results: We observed that Deep Ensembles outperformed the other methods except for images with heavy noise and blurring distortions. We showed that Bayes by Backprop is more robust to noise distortions while Stochastic Segmentation Networks are more resistant to blurring distortions. For segmentation quality control, we showed that segmentation uncertainty is correlated with segmentation accuracy for all the methods. With the incorporation of uncertainty estimates, we were able to reduce the percentage of poor segmentation to 5% by flagging 31--48% of the most uncertain segmentations for manual review, substantially lower than random review without using neural network uncertainty (reviewing 75--78% of all images). Conclusion: This work provides a comprehensive evaluation of uncertainty estimation methods and showed that Deep Ensembles outperformed other methods in most cases. Significance: Neural network uncertainty measures can help identify potentially inaccurate segmentations and alert users for manual review.

尽管对安全机器学习的重要性，但神经网络的不确定性量化远未解决。估计神经不确定性的最先进方法通常是混合的，将参数模型与显式或隐式（基于辍学的）合并结合。我们采取另一种途径，提出一种新颖的回归任务的不确定量化方法，纯粹是非参数的。从技术上讲，它通过基于辍学的子网分布来捕获梯级不确定性。这是通过一个新目标来实现的，这使得标签分布与模型分布之间的Wasserstein距离最小化。广泛的经验分析表明，在生产更准确和稳定的不确定度估计方面，Wasserstein丢失在香草测试数据以及在分类转移的情况下表现出最先进的方法。

Deep Neural Networks (DNN) are increasingly used as components of larger software systems that need to process complex data, such as images, written texts, audio/video signals. DNN predictions cannot be assumed to be always correct for several reasons, among which the huge input space that is dealt with, the ambiguity of some inputs data, as well as the intrinsic properties of learning algorithms, which can provide only statistical warranties. Hence, developers have to cope with some residual error probability. An architectural pattern commonly adopted to manage failure-prone components is the supervisor, an additional component that can estimate the reliability of the predictions made by untrusted (e.g., DNN) components and can activate an automated healing procedure when these are likely to fail, ensuring that the Deep Learning based System (DLS) does not cause damages, despite its main functionality being suspended. In this paper, we consider DLS that implement a supervisor by means of uncertainty estimation. After overviewing the main approaches to uncertainty estimation and discussing their pros and cons, we motivate the need for a specific empirical assessment method that can deal with the experimental setting in which supervisors are used, where the accuracy of the DNN matters only as long as the supervisor lets the DLS continue to operate. Then we present a large empirical study conducted to compare the alternative approaches to uncertainty estimation. We distilled a set of guidelines for developers that are useful to incorporate a supervisor based on uncertainty monitoring into a DLS.

Trusting the predictions of deep learning models in safety critical settings such as the medical domain is still not a viable option. Distentangled uncertainty quantification in the field of medical imaging has received little attention. In this paper, we study disentangled uncertainties in image to image translation tasks in the medical domain. We compare multiple uncertainty quantification methods, namely Ensembles, Flipout, Dropout, and DropConnect, while using CycleGAN to convert T1-weighted brain MRI scans to T2-weighted brain MRI scans. We further evaluate uncertainty behavior in the presence of out of distribution data (Brain CT and RGB Face Images), showing that epistemic uncertainty can be used to detect out of distribution inputs, which should increase reliability of model outputs.

基于机器学习的数据驱动方法具有加速原子结构的计算分析。在这种情况下，可靠的不确定性估计对于评估对预测和实现决策的信心很重要。然而，机器学习模型可以产生严重校准的不确定性估计，因此仔细检测和处理不确定性至关重要。在这项工作中，我们扩展了一种消息，该消息通过神经网络，专门用于预测分子和材料的性质，具有校准的概率预测分布。本文提出的方法与先前的工作不同，通过考虑统一框架中的炼体和认知的不确定性，并通过重新校准未经证明数据的预测分布。通过计算机实验，我们表明我们的方法导致准确的模型，用于预测两种公共分子基准数据集，QM9和PC9的训练数据分布良好的分子形成能量。该方法提供了一种用于训练和评估神经网络集合模型的一般框架，该模型能够产生具有良好校准的不确定性估计的分子性质的准确预测。

神经随机微分方程（NSDES）模拟随机过程作为神经网络的漂移和扩散函数。尽管已知NSDE可以进行准确的预测，但到目前为止，其不确定性定量属性仍未探索。我们报告了经验发现，即从NSDE获得良好的不确定性估计是计算上的过度估计。作为一种补救措施，我们开发了一种计算负担得起的确定性方案，该方案在动力学受NSD管辖时准确地近似过渡内核。我们的方法引入了匹配算法的二维力矩：沿着神经净层和沿时间方向水平的垂直力，这受益于有效近似的原始组合。我们对过渡内核的确定性近似适用于培训和预测。我们在多个实验中观察到，我们方法的不确定性校准质量只有在引入高计算成本后才通过蒙特卡洛采样来匹配。由于确定性培训的数值稳定性，我们的方法还提高了预测准确性。

We introduce ensembles of stochastic neural networks to approximate the Bayesian posterior, combining stochastic methods such as dropout with deep ensembles. The stochastic ensembles are formulated as families of distributions and trained to approximate the Bayesian posterior with variational inference. We implement stochastic ensembles based on Monte Carlo dropout, DropConnect and a novel non-parametric version of dropout and evaluate them on a toy problem and CIFAR image classification. For CIFAR, the stochastic ensembles are quantitatively compared to published Hamiltonian Monte Carlo results for a ResNet-20 architecture. We also test the quality of the posteriors directly against Hamiltonian Monte Carlo simulations in a simplified toy model. Our results show that in a number of settings, stochastic ensembles provide more accurate posterior estimates than regular deep ensembles.

人工智能（AI）和机器学习（ML）的最新表现突破，尤其是深度学习的进步（DL），功能强大，易于使用的ML库（例如Scikit-Learn，Tensorflow，Pytorch。），Pytorch。，Pytorch。。核工程师对AI/ML的前所未有的兴趣，并增加了计算能力。对于基于物理学的计算模型，已经广泛研究了验证，验证和不确定性定量（VVUQ），并且已经开发了许多方法。但是，ML模型的VVUQ的研究相对较少，尤其是在核工程中。在这项工作中，我们专注于ML模型的UQ作为ML VVUQ的初步步骤，更具体地说，是Deep Neural Networks（DNNS），因为它们是用于回归和分类任务的最广泛使用的监督ML算法。这项工作旨在量化DNN的预测或近似不确定性，当它们用作昂贵的物理模型的替代模型时。比较了DNN UQ的三种技术，即Monte Carlo辍学（MCD），深层合奏（DE）和贝叶斯神经网络（BNNS）。两个核工程示例用于基准这些方法，（1）使用野牛代码的时间依赖性裂变气体释放数据，以及（2）基于BFBT基准测试的无效分数模拟使用痕量代码。发现这三种方法通常需要不同的DNN体系结构和超参数来优化其性能。 UQ结果还取决于可用培训数据的量和数据的性质。总体而言，所有这三种方法都可以提供对近似不确定性的合理估计。当平均预测接近测试数据时，不确定性通常较小，而BNN方法通常会产生比MCD和DE更大的不确定性。

The ability to estimate epistemic uncertainty is often crucial when deploying machine learning in the real world, but modern methods often produce overconfident, uncalibrated uncertainty predictions. A common approach to quantify epistemic uncertainty, usable across a wide class of prediction models, is to train a model ensemble. In a naive implementation, the ensemble approach has high computational cost and high memory demand. This challenges in particular modern deep learning, where even a single deep network is already demanding in terms of compute and memory, and has given rise to a number of attempts to emulate the model ensemble without actually instantiating separate ensemble members. We introduce FiLM-Ensemble, a deep, implicit ensemble method based on the concept of Feature-wise Linear Modulation (FiLM). That technique was originally developed for multi-task learning, with the aim of decoupling different tasks. We show that the idea can be extended to uncertainty quantification: by modulating the network activations of a single deep network with FiLM, one obtains a model ensemble with high diversity, and consequently well-calibrated estimates of epistemic uncertainty, with low computational overhead in comparison. Empirically, FiLM-Ensemble outperforms other implicit ensemble methods, and it and comes very close to the upper bound of an explicit ensemble of networks (sometimes even beating it), at a fraction of the memory cost.

Accurate uncertainty measurement is a key step to building robust and reliable machine learning systems. Conformal prediction is a distribution-free uncertainty quantification algorithm popular for its ease of implementation, statistical coverage guarantees, and versatility for underlying forecasters. However, existing conformal prediction algorithms for time series are limited to single-step prediction without considering the temporal dependency. In this paper we propose a Copula Conformal Prediction algorithm for multivariate, multi-step Time Series forecasting, CopulaCPTS. On several synthetic and real-world multivariate time series datasets, we show that CopulaCPTS produces more calibrated and sharp confidence intervals for multi-step prediction tasks than existing techniques.