类型多样的语言提供了词汇和语法方面的系统，使演讲者可以以与他们所面临的特定交流环境和话语约束的方式专注于事件结构的方面。在本文中，我们专门研究了阿拉伯语，中文，德语，德语，俄语和土耳其语的图像标题，并描述了预测词汇方面的计算模型。尽管这些语言具有异质性，以及在其标题语料库中对独特语言资源的显着调用，但这些语言的说话者在框架图像内容的方式方面表现出令人惊讶的相似之处。我们利用这种观察到零拍的跨语性学习，并表明，尽管没有观察到这种语言的任何带注释的数据，但可以预测给定语言的词汇方面。

可靠的评估基准是为了可复制性和全面性而设计的，在机器学习方面取得了进步。但是，由于缺乏多语言基准，视觉和语言研究主要集中在英语任务上。为了填补这一空白，我们介绍了图像的语言理解评估基准。 Iglue通过汇总已有的数据集并创建新的数据来汇集 - 视觉问题回答，跨模式检索，扎根的推理以及跨20种不同语言的扎根成本。我们的基准测试能够评估多语言多模型用于转移学习的模型，不仅在零弹位设置中，而且还以新定义的少数图学习设置。根据对可用最新模型的评估，我们发现翻译测试转移优于零弹性转移，并且对于许多任务而言，很难利用射击的学习。此外，下游性能部分用可用的未标记文本数据进行预处理来解释，并且仅通过目标源语言的类型学距离而微弱。我们希望通过向社区释放基准来鼓励该领域的未来研究工作。

In this paper, we show that Multilingual BERT (M-BERT), released by Devlin et al. (2019) as a single language model pre-trained from monolingual corpora in 104 languages, is surprisingly good at zero-shot cross-lingual model transfer, in which task-specific annotations in one language are used to fine-tune the model for evaluation in another language. To understand why, we present a large number of probing experiments, showing that transfer is possible even to languages in different scripts, that transfer works best between typologically similar languages, that monolingual corpora can train models for code-switching, and that the model can find translation pairs. From these results, we can conclude that M-BERT does create multilingual representations, but that these representations exhibit systematic deficiencies affecting certain language pairs.

方面含义是指如何提出情况的内部时间结构。这包括情况是将情况描述为状态还是事件，无论情况已经完成还是正在进行，以及是否被视为一个整体，还是关注特定阶段。这项调查概述了对词汇和语法方面进行建模以及对必要语言概念和术语的直观解释的概述。特别是，我们描述了统计，远程感，习惯性，完美和不完美的概念，以及最终性和情况类型的有影响力的清单。我们认为，由于方面是语义的关键组成部分，尤其是在以精确的方式报告情况的时间结构时，未来的NLP方法需要能够系统地处理和评估它，以实现人类水平的语言理解。

Multilingual BERT (mBERT) has demonstrated considerable cross-lingual syntactic ability, whereby it enables effective zero-shot cross-lingual transfer of syntactic knowledge. The transfer is more successful between some languages, but it is not well understood what leads to this variation and whether it fairly reflects difference between languages. In this work, we investigate the distributions of grammatical relations induced from mBERT in the context of 24 typologically different languages. We demonstrate that the distance between the distributions of different languages is highly consistent with the syntactic difference in terms of linguistic formalisms. Such difference learnt via self-supervision plays a crucial role in the zero-shot transfer performance and can be predicted by variation in morphosyntactic properties between languages. These results suggest that mBERT properly encodes languages in a way consistent with linguistic diversity and provide insights into the mechanism of cross-lingual transfer.

语言的视觉基础旨在用多种视觉知识来源（例如图像和视频）丰富语言表示。尽管视觉接地是一个深入研究的领域，但视觉接地的语言方面并没有得到太多关注。本研究调查了单词嵌入的语法视觉基础。我们在两个视觉和语言空间之间提出了一种隐式对齐技术，其中语言之间的文本信息相互作用以丰富预训练的文本单词嵌入。我们专注于实验中的三种语言，即英语，阿拉伯语和德语。我们获得了这些语言的视觉接地矢量表示形式，并研究了一种或多种语言的视觉接地是否改善了嵌入在单词相似性和分类基准上的嵌入性能。我们的实验表明，语法知识可以改善类似语言（例如德语和英语）的扎根嵌入性能。但是，德语或英语用阿拉伯语的语言基础导致单词相似性基准的性能略有降解。另一方面，我们观察到了分类基准的相反趋势，而阿拉伯语对英语的进步最大。在讨论部分中，提出了这些发现的几个原因。我们希望我们的实验为进一步研究的基线提供了有关语法间视觉接地的基准。

自然语言推理（NLI）和语义文本相似性（STS）是广泛使用的基准任务，用于对预训练的语言模型进行组成评估。尽管对语言普遍性的兴趣越来越大，但大多数NLI/STS研究几乎完全集中在英语上。特别是，日语中没有可用的多语言NLI/STS数据集，它在类型上与英语不同，并且可以阐明语言模型当前有争议的行为，例如对单词顺序和案例粒子的敏感性。在此背景下，我们介绍了日本NLI/STS数据集Jsick，该数据集是从英语数据集病中手动翻译的。我们还提出了一个用于组成推断的应力测试数据集，该数据集是通过转换JSick中句子的句法结构来研究语言模型是否对单词顺序和案例粒子敏感的。我们在不同的预训练语言模型上进行基线实验，并比较应用于日语和其他语言时多语言模型的性能。应力测试实验的结果表明，当前的预训练的语言模型对单词顺序和案例标记不敏感。

基于变压器的语言模型最近在许多自然语言任务中取得了显着的结果。但是，通常通过利用大量培训数据来实现排行榜的性能，并且很少通过将明确的语言知识编码为神经模型。这使许多人质疑语言学对现代自然语言处理的相关性。在本文中，我介绍了几个案例研究，以说明理论语言学和神经语言模型仍然相互关联。首先，语言模型通过提供一个客观的工具来测量语义距离，这对语言学家很有用，语义距离很难使用传统方法。另一方面，语言理论通过提供框架和数据源来探究我们的语言模型，以了解语言理解的特定方面，从而有助于语言建模研究。本论文贡献了三项研究，探讨了语言模型中语法 - 听觉界面的不同方面。在论文的第一部分中，我将语言模型应用于单词类灵活性的问题。我将Mbert作为语义距离测量的来源，我提供了有利于将单词类灵活性分析为方向过程的证据。在论文的第二部分中，我提出了一种方法来测量语言模型中间层的惊奇方法。我的实验表明，包含形态句法异常的句子触发了语言模型早期的惊喜，而不是语义和常识异常。最后，在论文的第三部分中，我适应了一些心理语言学研究，以表明语言模型包含了论证结构结构的知识。总而言之，我的论文在自然语言处理，语言理论和心理语言学之间建立了新的联系，以为语言模型的解释提供新的观点。

As machine translation (MT) metrics improve their correlation with human judgement every year, it is crucial to understand the limitations of such metrics at the segment level. Specifically, it is important to investigate metric behaviour when facing accuracy errors in MT because these can have dangerous consequences in certain contexts (e.g., legal, medical). We curate ACES, a translation accuracy challenge set, consisting of 68 phenomena ranging from simple perturbations at the word/character level to more complex errors based on discourse and real-world knowledge. We use ACES to evaluate a wide range of MT metrics including the submissions to the WMT 2022 metrics shared task and perform several analyses leading to general recommendations for metric developers. We recommend: a) combining metrics with different strengths, b) developing metrics that give more weight to the source and less to surface-level overlap with the reference and c) explicitly modelling additional language-specific information beyond what is available via multilingual embeddings.

JamPatoisNLI provides the first dataset for natural language inference in a creole language, Jamaican Patois. Many of the most-spoken low-resource languages are creoles. These languages commonly have a lexicon derived from a major world language and a distinctive grammar reflecting the languages of the original speakers and the process of language birth by creolization. This gives them a distinctive place in exploring the effectiveness of transfer from large monolingual or multilingual pretrained models. While our work, along with previous work, shows that transfer from these models to low-resource languages that are unrelated to languages in their training set is not very effective, we would expect stronger results from transfer to creoles. Indeed, our experiments show considerably better results from few-shot learning of JamPatoisNLI than for such unrelated languages, and help us begin to understand how the unique relationship between creoles and their high-resource base languages affect cross-lingual transfer. JamPatoisNLI, which consists of naturally-occurring premises and expert-written hypotheses, is a step towards steering research into a traditionally underserved language and a useful benchmark for understanding cross-lingual NLP.

数据增强是自然语言处理（NLP）模型的鲁棒性评估的重要组成部分，以及增强他们培训的数据的多样性。在本文中，我们呈现NL-Cogmenter，这是一种新的参与式Python的自然语言增强框架，它支持创建两个转换（对数据的修改）和过滤器（根据特定功能的数据拆分）。我们描述了框架和初始的117个变换和23个过滤器，用于各种自然语言任务。我们通过使用其几个转换来分析流行自然语言模型的鲁棒性来证明NL-Upmenter的功效。基础架构，Datacards和稳健性分析结果在NL-Augmenter存储库上公开可用（\ url {https://github.com/gem-benchmark/nl-augmenter}）。

Event Detection (ED) is the task of identifying and classifying trigger words of event mentions in text. Despite considerable research efforts in recent years for English text, the task of ED in other languages has been significantly less explored. Switching to non-English languages, important research questions for ED include how well existing ED models perform on different languages, how challenging ED is in other languages, and how well ED knowledge and annotation can be transferred across languages. To answer those questions, it is crucial to obtain multilingual ED datasets that provide consistent event annotation for multiple languages. There exist some multilingual ED datasets; however, they tend to cover a handful of languages and mainly focus on popular ones. Many languages are not covered in existing multilingual ED datasets. In addition, the current datasets are often small and not accessible to the public. To overcome those shortcomings, we introduce a new large-scale multilingual dataset for ED (called MINION) that consistently annotates events for 8 different languages; 5 of them have not been supported by existing multilingual datasets. We also perform extensive experiments and analysis to demonstrate the challenges and transferability of ED across languages in MINION that in all call for more research effort in this area.

随着语言技术变得更加无处不在，越来越努力扩大自然语言处理（NLP）系统的语言分集和覆盖范围。可以说，影响现代NLP系统质量的最重要因素是数据可用性。在这项工作中，我们研究了NLP数据集的地理代表性，旨在量化NLP数据集与语言扬声器的预期需求量化。在这样做时，我们使用实体识别和链接系统，同时对其交叉量度的一致性进行重要观察，并为更强大的评估提供建议。最后，我们探讨了可能解释观察到的数据集发行版的一些地理和经济因素。此处提供代码和数据：https://github.com/ffaisal93/dataset_geography。此处提供其他可视化：https：//nlp.cs.gmu.edu/project/datasetmaps/。

对于自然语言处理应用可能是有问题的，因为它们的含义不能从其构成词语推断出来。缺乏成功的方法方法和足够大的数据集防止了用于检测成语的机器学习方法的开发，特别是对于在训练集中不发生的表达式。我们提出了一种叫做小鼠的方法，它使用上下文嵌入来实现此目的。我们展示了一个新的多字表达式数据集，具有文字和惯用含义，并使用它根据两个最先进的上下文单词嵌入式培训分类器：Elmo和Bert。我们表明，使用两个嵌入式的深度神经网络比现有方法更好地执行，并且能够检测惯用词使用，即使对于训练集中不存在的表达式。我们展示了开发模型的交叉传输，并分析了所需数据集的大小。

Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations. However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural language inference benchmarks for the first time.

GPT-3等大型自回归语言模型是几秒钟的学习者，可以在没有微调的情况下执行各种语言任务。虽然已知这些模型能够共同代表许多不同的语言，但他们的培训数据由英语主导，可能限制了它们的交叉概括。在这项工作中，我们在覆盖多种语言的平衡语料库上培训多语言自回归语言模型，并在广泛的任务中研究他们几乎没有零点的学习能力。我们最大的模型，具有75亿参数，在20多种代表语言中，在几种代表语言中，在几种代表性语言中，在几种代表性语言中，在多语言型号推理中表现出可比大小的GPT-3（在0次设置和0次拍摄设置中的绝对精度改善+ 7.4％ 4-拍摄设置中的9.4％）和自然语言推理（每次拍摄和4次设置中的每一个+ 5.4％）。在Flores-101机器翻译基准测试中，我们的模型优于GPT-3在182个翻译方向上有32个培训例子，同时超过45个方向的官方监督基线。我们介绍了模型成功和失败的位置的详细分析，特别是它尤其显示在某些任务中实现交叉语境的内容学习，而仍然存在改善表面的鲁棒性和适应没有a的任务的余地自然冻结形式。最后，我们评估我们在仇恨语音检测中以五种语言的仇恨语音检测的模型，并发现它具有与可比大小的GPT-3模型类似的限制。

Multi-lingual language models (LM), such as mBERT, XLM-R, mT5, mBART, have been remarkably successful in enabling natural language tasks in low-resource languages through cross-lingual transfer from high-resource ones. In this work, we try to better understand how such models, specifically mT5, transfer *any* linguistic and semantic knowledge across languages, even though no explicit cross-lingual signals are provided during pre-training. Rather, only unannotated texts from each language are presented to the model separately and independently of one another, and the model appears to implicitly learn cross-lingual connections. This raises several questions that motivate our study, such as: Are the cross-lingual connections between every language pair equally strong? What properties of source and target language impact the strength of cross-lingual transfer? Can we quantify the impact of those properties on the cross-lingual transfer? In our investigation, we analyze a pre-trained mT5 to discover the attributes of cross-lingual connections learned by the model. Through a statistical interpretation framework over 90 language pairs across three tasks, we show that transfer performance can be modeled by a few linguistic and data-derived features. These observations enable us to interpret cross-lingual understanding of the mT5 model. Through these observations, one can favorably choose the best source language for a task, and can anticipate its training data demands. A key finding of this work is that similarity of syntax, morphology and phonology are good predictors of cross-lingual transfer, significantly more than just the lexical similarity of languages. For a given language, we are able to predict zero-shot performance, that increases on a logarithmic scale with the number of few-shot target language data points.

本文介绍了一个大规模的多模式和多语言数据集，该数据集旨在促进在语言中的上下文使用中对图像进行接地的研究。数据集由选择明确说明在电影字幕句子中表达的概念的图像组成。数据集是一个宝贵的资源，因为（i）图像与文本片段一致，而不是整个句子； （ii）对于文本片段和句子，可以使用多个图像； （iii）这些句子是自由形式和现实世界的； （iv）平行文本是多语言的。我们为人类设置了一个填充游戏，以评估数据集的自动图像选择过程的质量。我们在两个自动任务上显示了数据集的实用程序：（i）填充填充； （ii）词汇翻译。人类评估和自动模型的结果表明，图像可以是文本上下文的有用补充。该数据集将受益于单词视觉基础的研究，尤其是在自由形式句子的背景下，可以从https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5034604获得创意常识许可。

Much recent progress in applications of machine learning models to NLP has been driven by benchmarks that evaluate models across a wide variety of tasks. However, these broad-coverage benchmarks have been mostly limited to English, and despite an increasing interest in multilingual models, a benchmark that enables the comprehensive evaluation of such methods on a diverse range of languages and tasks is still missing. To this end, we introduce the Cross-lingual TRansfer Evaluation of Multilingual Encoders (XTREME) benchmark, a multi-task benchmark for evaluating the cross-lingual generalization capabilities of multilingual representations across 40 languages and 9 tasks. We demonstrate that while models tested on English reach human performance on many tasks, there is still a sizable gap in the performance of cross-lingually transferred models, particularly on syntactic and sentence retrieval tasks. There is also a wide spread of results across languages. We release the benchmark 1 to encourage research on cross-lingual learning methods that transfer linguistic knowledge across a diverse and representative set of languages and tasks.

In this work, we introduce IndicXTREME, a benchmark consisting of nine diverse tasks covering 18 languages from the Indic sub-continent belonging to four different families. Across languages and tasks, IndicXTREME contains a total of 103 evaluation sets, of which 51 are new contributions to the literature. To maintain high quality, we only use human annotators to curate or translate\footnote{for IndicXParaphrase, where an automatic translation system is used, a second human verification and correction step is done.} our datasets. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first effort toward creating a standard benchmark for Indic languages that aims to test the zero-shot capabilities of pretrained language models. We also release IndicCorp v2, an updated and much larger version of IndicCorp that contains 20.9 billion tokens in 24 languages. We pretrain IndicBERT v2 on IndicCorp v2 and evaluate it on IndicXTREME to show that it outperforms existing multilingual language models such as XLM-R and MuRIL.