Top-performing deep architectures are trained on massive amounts of labeled data. In the absence of labeled data for a certain task, domain adaptation often provides an attractive option given that labeled data of similar nature but from a different domain (e.g. synthetic images) are available. Here, we propose a new approach to domain adaptation in deep architectures that can be trained on large amount of labeled data from the source domain and large amount of unlabeled data from the target domain (no labeled targetdomain data is necessary).As the training progresses, the approach promotes the emergence of "deep" features that are (i) discriminative for the main learning task on the source domain and (ii) invariant with respect to the shift between the domains. We show that this adaptation behaviour can be achieved in almost any feed-forward model by augmenting it with few standard layers and a simple new gradient reversal layer. The resulting augmented architecture can be trained using standard backpropagation.Overall, the approach can be implemented with little effort using any of the deep-learning packages. The method performs very well in a series of image classification experiments, achieving adaptation effect in the presence of big domain shifts and outperforming previous state-ofthe-art on Office datasets.

We introduce a new representation learning approach for domain adaptation, in which data at training and test time come from similar but different distributions. Our approach is directly inspired by the theory on domain adaptation suggesting that, for effective domain transfer to be achieved, predictions must be made based on features that cannot discriminate between the training (source) and test (target) domains.The approach implements this idea in the context of neural network architectures that are trained on labeled data from the source domain and unlabeled data from the target domain (no labeled target-domain data is necessary). As the training progresses, the approach promotes the emergence of features that are (i) discriminative for the main learning task on the source domain and (ii) indiscriminate with respect to the shift between the domains. We show that this adaptation behaviour can be achieved in almost any feed-forward model by augmenting it with few standard layers and a new gradient reversal layer. The resulting augmented architecture can be trained using standard backpropagation and stochastic gradient descent, and can thus be implemented with little effort using any of the deep learning packages.We demonstrate the success of our approach for two distinct classification problems (document sentiment analysis and image classification), where state-of-the-art domain adaptation performance on standard benchmarks is achieved. We also validate the approach for descriptor learning task in the context of person re-identification application.

Recent reports suggest that a generic supervised deep CNN model trained on a large-scale dataset reduces, but does not remove, dataset bias. Fine-tuning deep models in a new domain can require a significant amount of labeled data, which for many applications is simply not available. We propose a new CNN architecture to exploit unlabeled and sparsely labeled target domain data. Our approach simultaneously optimizes for domain invariance to facilitate domain transfer and uses a soft label distribution matching loss to transfer information between tasks. Our proposed adaptation method offers empirical performance which exceeds previously published results on two standard benchmark visual domain adaptation tasks, evaluated across supervised and semi-supervised adaptation settings.

The cost of large scale data collection and annotation often makes the application of machine learning algorithms to new tasks or datasets prohibitively expensive. One approach circumventing this cost is training models on synthetic data where annotations are provided automatically. Despite their appeal, such models often fail to generalize from synthetic to real images, necessitating domain adaptation algorithms to manipulate these models before they can be successfully applied. Existing approaches focus either on mapping representations from one domain to the other, or on learning to extract features that are invariant to the domain from which they were extracted. However, by focusing only on creating a mapping or shared representation between the two domains, they ignore the individual characteristics of each domain. We suggest that explicitly modeling what is unique to each domain can improve a model's ability to extract domain-invariant features. Inspired by work on private-shared component analysis, we explicitly learn to extract image representations that are partitioned into two subspaces: one component which is private to each domain and one which is shared across domains. Our model is trained not only to perform the task we care about in the source domain, but also to use the partitioned representation to reconstruct the images from both domains. Our novel architecture results in a model that outperforms the state-of-the-art on a range of unsupervised domain adaptation scenarios and additionally produces visualizations of the private and shared representations enabling interpretation of the domain adaptation process.

Deep learning has produced state-of-the-art results for a variety of tasks. While such approaches for supervised learning have performed well, they assume that training and testing data are drawn from the same distribution, which may not always be the case. As a complement to this challenge, single-source unsupervised domain adaptation can handle situations where a network is trained on labeled data from a source domain and unlabeled data from a related but different target domain with the goal of performing well at test-time on the target domain. Many single-source and typically homogeneous unsupervised deep domain adaptation approaches have thus been developed, combining the powerful, hierarchical representations from deep learning with domain adaptation to reduce reliance on potentially-costly target data labels. This survey will compare these approaches by examining alternative methods, the unique and common elements, results, and theoretical insights. We follow this with a look at application areas and open research directions.

虽然无监督的域适应（UDA）算法，即，近年来只有来自源域的标记数据，大多数算法和理论结果侧重于单源无监督域适应（SUDA）。然而，在实际情况下，标记的数据通常可以从多个不同的源收集，并且它们可能不仅不同于目标域而且彼此不同。因此，来自多个源的域适配器不应以相同的方式进行建模。最近基于深度学习的多源无监督域适应（Muda）算法专注于通过在通用特征空间中的所有源极和目标域的分布对齐来提取所有域的公共域不变表示。但是，往往很难提取Muda中所有域的相同域不变表示。此外，这些方法匹配分布而不考虑类之间的域特定的决策边界。为了解决这些问题，我们提出了一个新的框架，具有两个对准阶段的Muda，它不仅将每对源和目标域的分布对齐，而且还通过利用域特定的分类器的输出对准决策边界。广泛的实验表明，我们的方法可以对图像分类的流行基准数据集实现显着的结果。

深度学习（DL）是各种计算机视觉任务中使用的主要方法，因为它在许多任务上取得了相关结果。但是，在具有部分或没有标记数据的实际情况下，DL方法也容易出现众所周知的域移位问题。多源无监督的域适应性（MSDA）旨在通过从一袋源模型中分配弱知识来学习未标记域的预测指标。但是，大多数作品进行域适应性仅利用提取的特征并从损失函数设计的角度降低其域的转移。在本文中，我们认为仅基于域级特征处理域移动不足，但是在功能空间上对此类信息进行对齐也是必不可少的。与以前的工作不同，我们专注于网络设计，并建议将多源版本的域对齐层（MS-DIAL）嵌入预测变量的不同级别。这些层旨在匹配不同域之间的特征分布，并且可以轻松地应用于各种MSDA方法。为了显示我们方法的鲁棒性，我们考虑了两个具有挑战性的情况：数字识别和对象分类，进行了广泛的实验评估。实验结果表明，我们的方法可以改善最新的MSDA方法，从而在其分类精度上获得 +30.64％的相对增长。

无监督域适应（UDA）旨在将知识从标记的源域传输到未标记的目标域。传统上，基于子空间的方法为此问题形成了一类重要的解决方案。尽管他们的数学优雅和易腐烂性，但这些方法通常被发现在产生具有复杂的现实世界数据集的领域不变的功能时无效。由于近期具有深度网络的代表学习的最新进展，本文重新访问了UDA的子空间对齐，提出了一种新的适应算法，始终如一地导致改进的泛化。与现有的基于对抗培训的DA方法相比，我们的方法隔离了特征学习和分配对准步骤，并利用主要辅助优化策略来有效地平衡域不契约的目标和模型保真度。在提供目标数据和计算要求的显着降低的同时，基于子空间的DA竞争性，有时甚至优于几种标准UDA基准测试的最先进的方法。此外，子空间对准导致本质上定期的模型，即使在具有挑战性的部分DA设置中，也表现出强大的泛化。最后，我们的UDA框架的设计本身支持对测试时间的新目标域的逐步适应，而无需从头开始重新检测模型。总之，由强大的特征学习者和有效的优化策略提供支持，我们将基于子空间的DA建立为可视识别的高效方法。

This work provides a unified framework for addressing the problem of visual supervised domain adaptation and generalization with deep models. The main idea is to exploit the Siamese architecture to learn an embedding subspace that is discriminative, and where mapped visual domains are semantically aligned and yet maximally separated. The supervised setting becomes attractive especially when only few target data samples need to be labeled. In this scenario, alignment and separation of semantic probability distributions is difficult because of the lack of data. We found that by reverting to point-wise surrogates of distribution distances and similarities provides an effective solution. In addition, the approach has a high "speed" of adaptation, which requires an extremely low number of labeled target training samples, even one per category can be effective. The approach is extended to domain generalization. For both applications the experiments show very promising results.

虽然在许多域内生成并提供了大量的未标记数据，但对视觉数据的自动理解的需求高于以往任何时候。大多数现有机器学习模型通常依赖于大量标记的训练数据来实现高性能。不幸的是，在现实世界的应用中，不能满足这种要求。标签的数量有限，手动注释数据昂贵且耗时。通常需要将知识从现有标记域传输到新域。但是，模型性能因域之间的差异（域移位或数据集偏差）而劣化。为了克服注释的负担，域适应（DA）旨在在将知识从一个域转移到另一个类似但不同的域中时减轻域移位问题。无监督的DA（UDA）处理标记的源域和未标记的目标域。 UDA的主要目标是减少标记的源数据和未标记的目标数据之间的域差异，并在培训期间在两个域中学习域不变的表示。在本文中，我们首先定义UDA问题。其次，我们从传统方法和基于深度学习的方法中概述了不同类别的UDA的最先进的方法。最后，我们收集常用的基准数据集和UDA最先进方法的报告结果对视觉识别问题。

Adversarial learning methods are a promising approach to training robust deep networks, and can generate complex samples across diverse domains. They also can improve recognition despite the presence of domain shift or dataset bias: several adversarial approaches to unsupervised domain adaptation have recently been introduced, which reduce the difference between the training and test domain distributions and thus improve generalization performance. Prior generative approaches show compelling visualizations, but are not optimal on discriminative tasks and can be limited to smaller shifts. Prior discriminative approaches could handle larger domain shifts, but imposed tied weights on the model and did not exploit a GAN-based loss. We first outline a novel generalized framework for adversarial adaptation, which subsumes recent state-of-the-art approaches as special cases, and we use this generalized view to better relate the prior approaches. We propose a previously unexplored instance of our general framework which combines discriminative modeling, untied weight sharing, and a GAN loss, which we call Adversarial Discriminative Domain Adaptation (ADDA). We show that ADDA is more effective yet considerably simpler than competing domain-adversarial methods, and demonstrate the promise of our approach by exceeding state-of-the-art unsupervised adaptation results on standard cross-domain digit classification tasks and a new more difficult cross-modality object classification task.

Deep domain adaptation has emerged as a new learning technique to address the lack of massive amounts of labeled data. Compared to conventional methods, which learn shared feature subspaces or reuse important source instances with shallow representations, deep domain adaptation methods leverage deep networks to learn more transferable representations by embedding domain adaptation in the pipeline of deep learning. There have been comprehensive surveys for shallow domain adaptation, but few timely reviews the emerging deep learning based methods. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive survey of deep domain adaptation methods for computer vision applications with four major contributions. First, we present a taxonomy of different deep domain adaptation scenarios according to the properties of data that define how two domains are diverged. Second, we summarize deep domain adaptation approaches into several categories based on training loss, and analyze and compare briefly the state-of-the-art methods under these categories. Third, we overview the computer vision applications that go beyond image classification, such as face recognition, semantic segmentation and object detection. Fourth, some potential deficiencies of current methods and several future directions are highlighted.

Domain Adaptation is an actively researched problem in Computer Vision. In this work, we propose an approach that leverages unsupervised data to bring the source and target distributions closer in a learned joint feature space. We accomplish this by inducing a symbiotic relationship between the learned embedding and a generative adversarial network. This is in contrast to methods which use the adversarial framework for realistic data generation and retraining deep models with such data. We demonstrate the strength and generality of our approach by performing experiments on three different tasks with varying levels of difficulty: (1) Digit classification (MNIST, SVHN and USPS datasets) (2) Object recognition using OFFICE dataset and (3) Domain adaptation from synthetic to real data. Our method achieves state-of-the art performance in most experimental settings and by far the only GAN-based method that has been shown to work well across different datasets such as OFFICE and DIGITS.

Adversarial learning has been embedded into deep networks to learn disentangled and transferable representations for domain adaptation. Existing adversarial domain adaptation methods may not effectively align different domains of multimodal distributions native in classification problems. In this paper, we present conditional adversarial domain adaptation, a principled framework that conditions the adversarial adaptation models on discriminative information conveyed in the classifier predictions. Conditional domain adversarial networks (CDANs) are designed with two novel conditioning strategies: multilinear conditioning that captures the crosscovariance between feature representations and classifier predictions to improve the discriminability, and entropy conditioning that controls the uncertainty of classifier predictions to guarantee the transferability. With theoretical guarantees and a few lines of codes, the approach has exceeded state-of-the-art results on five datasets.

在本文中，我们提出了一种使用域鉴别特征模块的双模块网络架构，以鼓励域不变的特征模块学习更多域不变的功能。该建议的架构可以应用于任何利用域不变功能的任何模型，用于无监督域适应，以提高其提取域不变特征的能力。我们在作为代表性算法的神经网络（DANN）模型的区域 - 对抗训练进行实验。在培训过程中，我们为两个模块提供相同的输入，然后分别提取它们的特征分布和预测结果。我们提出了差异损失，以找到预测结果的差异和两个模块之间的特征分布。通过对抗训练来最大化其特征分布和最小化其预测结果的差异，鼓励两个模块分别学习更多域歧视和域不变特征。进行了广泛的比较评估，拟议的方法在大多数无监督的域适应任务中表现出最先进的。

在计算机视觉中，面对域转移是很常见的：具有相同类但采集条件不同的图像。在域适应性（DA）中，人们希望使用源标记的图像对未标记的目标图像进行分类。不幸的是，在源训练集中训练的深度神经网络在不属于训练领域的目标图像上表现不佳。改善这些性能的一种策略是使用最佳传输（OT）在嵌入式空间中对齐源和目标图像分布。但是，OT会导致负转移，即与不同标签的样品对齐，这导致过度拟合，尤其是在域之间存在标签移动的情况下。在这项工作中，我们通过将其解释为针对目标图像的嘈杂标签分配来减轻负相位。然后，我们通过适当的正则化来减轻其效果。我们建议将混合正则化\ citep {zhang2018mixup}与噪音标签强大的损失，以提高域的适应性性能。我们在一项广泛的消融研究中表明，这两种技术的结合对于提高性能至关重要。最后，我们在几个基准和现实世界DA问题上评估了称为\ textsc {mixunbot}的方法。

Unlike human learning, machine learning often fails to handle changes between training (source) and test (target) input distributions. Such domain shifts, common in practical scenarios, severely damage the performance of conventional machine learning methods. Supervised domain adaptation methods have been proposed for the case when the target data have labels, including some that perform very well despite being "frustratingly easy" to implement. However, in practice, the target domain is often unlabeled, requiring unsupervised adaptation. We propose a simple, effective, and efficient method for unsupervised domain adaptation called CORrelation ALignment (CORAL). CORAL minimizes domain shift by aligning the second-order statistics of source and target distributions, without requiring any target labels. Even though it is extraordinarily simple-it can be implemented in four lines of Matlab code-CORAL performs remarkably well in extensive evaluations on standard benchmark datasets."Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler."

无监督域适应（UDA）旨在将知识从相关但不同的良好标记的源域转移到新的未标记的目标域。大多数现有的UDA方法需要访问源数据，因此当数据保密而不相配在隐私问题时，不适用。本文旨在仅使用培训的分类模型来解决现实设置，而不是访问源数据。为了有效地利用适应源模型，我们提出了一种新颖的方法，称为源假设转移（拍摄），其通过将目标数据特征拟合到冻结源分类模块（表示分类假设）来学习目标域的特征提取模块。具体而言，拍摄挖掘出于特征提取模块的信息最大化和自我监督学习，以确保目标特征通过同一假设与看不见的源数据的特征隐式对齐。此外，我们提出了一种新的标签转移策略，它基于预测的置信度（标签信息），然后采用半监督学习来将目标数据分成两个分裂，然后提高目标域中的较为自信预测的准确性。如果通过拍摄获得预测，我们表示标记转移为拍摄++。关于两位数分类和对象识别任务的广泛实验表明，拍摄和射击++实现了与最先进的结果超越或相当的结果，展示了我们对各种视域适应问题的方法的有效性。代码可用于\ url {https：//github.com/tim-learn/shot-plus}。

This paper addresses the problem of unsupervised domain adaption from theoretical and algorithmic perspectives. Existing domain adaptation theories naturally imply minimax optimization algorithms, which connect well with the domain adaptation methods based on adversarial learning. However, several disconnections still exist and form the gap between theory and algorithm. We extend previous theories (Mansour et al., 2009c;Ben-David et al., 2010) to multiclass classification in domain adaptation, where classifiers based on the scoring functions and margin loss are standard choices in algorithm design. We introduce Margin Disparity Discrepancy, a novel measurement with rigorous generalization bounds, tailored to the distribution comparison with the asymmetric margin loss, and to the minimax optimization for easier training. Our theory can be seamlessly transformed into an adversarial learning algorithm for domain adaptation, successfully bridging the gap between theory and algorithm. A series of empirical studies show that our algorithm achieves the state of the art accuracies on challenging domain adaptation tasks.

Recent studies reveal that a deep neural network can learn transferable features which generalize well to novel tasks for domain adaptation. However, as deep features eventually transition from general to specific along the network, the feature transferability drops significantly in higher layers with increasing domain discrepancy. Hence, it is important to formally reduce the dataset bias and enhance the transferability in task-specific layers. In this paper, we propose a new Deep Adaptation Network (DAN) architecture, which generalizes deep convolutional neural network to the domain adaptation scenario. In DAN, hidden representations of all task-specific layers are embedded in a reproducing kernel Hilbert space where the mean embeddings of different domain distributions can be explicitly matched. The domain discrepancy is further reduced using an optimal multi-kernel selection method for mean embedding matching. DAN can learn transferable features with statistical guarantees, and can scale linearly by unbiased estimate of kernel embedding. Extensive empirical evidence shows that the proposed architecture yields state-of-the-art image classification error rates on standard domain adaptation benchmarks.