虽然在许多域内生成并提供了大量的未标记数据，但对视觉数据的自动理解的需求高于以往任何时候。大多数现有机器学习模型通常依赖于大量标记的训练数据来实现高性能。不幸的是，在现实世界的应用中，不能满足这种要求。标签的数量有限，手动注释数据昂贵且耗时。通常需要将知识从现有标记域传输到新域。但是，模型性能因域之间的差异（域移位或数据集偏差）而劣化。为了克服注释的负担，域适应（DA）旨在在将知识从一个域转移到另一个类似但不同的域中时减轻域移位问题。无监督的DA（UDA）处理标记的源域和未标记的目标域。 UDA的主要目标是减少标记的源数据和未标记的目标数据之间的域差异，并在培训期间在两个域中学习域不变的表示。在本文中，我们首先定义UDA问题。其次，我们从传统方法和基于深度学习的方法中概述了不同类别的UDA的最先进的方法。最后，我们收集常用的基准数据集和UDA最先进方法的报告结果对视觉识别问题。

Deep domain adaptation has emerged as a new learning technique to address the lack of massive amounts of labeled data. Compared to conventional methods, which learn shared feature subspaces or reuse important source instances with shallow representations, deep domain adaptation methods leverage deep networks to learn more transferable representations by embedding domain adaptation in the pipeline of deep learning. There have been comprehensive surveys for shallow domain adaptation, but few timely reviews the emerging deep learning based methods. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive survey of deep domain adaptation methods for computer vision applications with four major contributions. First, we present a taxonomy of different deep domain adaptation scenarios according to the properties of data that define how two domains are diverged. Second, we summarize deep domain adaptation approaches into several categories based on training loss, and analyze and compare briefly the state-of-the-art methods under these categories. Third, we overview the computer vision applications that go beyond image classification, such as face recognition, semantic segmentation and object detection. Fourth, some potential deficiencies of current methods and several future directions are highlighted.

Transfer learning aims at improving the performance of target learners on target domains by transferring the knowledge contained in different but related source domains. In this way, the dependence on a large number of target domain data can be reduced for constructing target learners. Due to the wide application prospects, transfer learning has become a popular and promising area in machine learning. Although there are already some valuable and impressive surveys on transfer learning, these surveys introduce approaches in a relatively isolated way and lack the recent advances in transfer learning. Due to the rapid expansion of the transfer learning area, it is both necessary and challenging to comprehensively review the relevant studies. This survey attempts to connect and systematize the existing transfer learning researches, as well as to summarize and interpret the mechanisms and the strategies of transfer learning in a comprehensive way, which may help readers have a better understanding of the current research status and ideas. Unlike previous surveys, this survey paper reviews more than forty representative transfer learning approaches, especially homogeneous transfer learning approaches, from the perspectives of data and model. The applications of transfer learning are also briefly introduced. In order to show the performance of different transfer learning models, over twenty representative transfer learning models are used for experiments. The models are performed on three different datasets, i.e., Amazon Reviews, Reuters-21578, and Office-31. And the experimental results demonstrate the importance of selecting appropriate transfer learning models for different applications in practice.

Deep learning has produced state-of-the-art results for a variety of tasks. While such approaches for supervised learning have performed well, they assume that training and testing data are drawn from the same distribution, which may not always be the case. As a complement to this challenge, single-source unsupervised domain adaptation can handle situations where a network is trained on labeled data from a source domain and unlabeled data from a related but different target domain with the goal of performing well at test-time on the target domain. Many single-source and typically homogeneous unsupervised deep domain adaptation approaches have thus been developed, combining the powerful, hierarchical representations from deep learning with domain adaptation to reduce reliance on potentially-costly target data labels. This survey will compare these approaches by examining alternative methods, the unique and common elements, results, and theoretical insights. We follow this with a look at application areas and open research directions.

无监督域适配利用标记的源域中丰富的信息来模拟未标记的目标域。现有方法尝试对齐跨域分布。然而，两个域的对准的统计表示并不良好解决。在本文中，我们提出了深度最小二乘对准（DLSA）来估计通过参数化线性模型来估计潜在空间中的两个域的分布。我们通过最小化拟合线和截距差异之间的角度以及进一步学习域不变特征，进一步开发边缘和条件适应损失以减少域差异。广泛的实验表明，所提出的DLSA模型在对准域分布和优于最先进的方法方面有效。

深度学习已成为解决不同领域中现实世界中问题的首选方法，部分原因是它能够从数据中学习并在广泛的应用程序上实现令人印象深刻的性能。但是，它的成功通常取决于两个假设：（i）精确模型拟合需要大量标记的数据集，并且（ii）培训和测试数据是独立的且分布相同的。因此，不能保证它在看不见的目标域上的性能，尤其是在适应阶段遇到分布数据的数据时。目标域中数据的性能下降是部署深层神经网络的关键问题，这些网络已成功地在源域中的数据训练。通过利用标记的源域数据和未标记的目标域数据来执行目标域中的各种任务，提出了无监督的域适应（UDA）来对抗这一点。 UDA在自然图像处理，视频分析，自然语言处理，时间序列数据分析，医学图像分析等方面取得了令人鼓舞的结果。在本综述中，作为一个快速发展的主题，我们对其方法和应用程序进行了系统的比较。此外，还讨论了UDA与其紧密相关的任务的联系，例如域的概括和分布外检测。此外，突出显示了当前方法和可能有希望的方向的缺陷。

机器学习系统通常假设训练和测试分布是相同的。为此，关键要求是开发可以概括到未经看不见的分布的模型。领域泛化（DG），即分销概括，近年来引起了越来越令人利益。域概括处理了一个具有挑战性的设置，其中给出了一个或几个不同但相关域，并且目标是学习可以概括到看不见的测试域的模型。多年来，域概括地区已经取得了巨大进展。本文提出了对该地区最近进步的首次审查。首先，我们提供了域泛化的正式定义，并讨论了几个相关领域。然后，我们彻底审查了与域泛化相关的理论，并仔细分析了泛化背后的理论。我们将最近的算法分为三个类：数据操作，表示学习和学习策略，并为每个类别详细介绍几种流行的算法。第三，我们介绍常用的数据集，应用程序和我们的开放源代码库进行公平评估。最后，我们总结了现有文学，并为未来提供了一些潜在的研究主题。

在图像分类中，获得足够的标签通常昂贵且耗时。为了解决这个问题，域适应通常提供有吸引力的选择，给出了来自类似性质但不同域的大量标记数据。现有方法主要对准单个结构提取的表示的分布，并且表示可以仅包含部分信息，例如，仅包含部分饱和度，亮度和色调信息。在这一行中，我们提出了多代表性适应，这可以大大提高跨域图像分类的分类精度，并且特别旨在对准由名为Inception Adaption Adationation模块（IAM）提取的多个表示的分布。基于此，我们呈现多色自适应网络（MRAN）来通过多表示对准完成跨域图像分类任务，该任向性可以捕获来自不同方面的信息。此外，我们扩展了最大的平均差异（MMD）来计算适应损耗。我们的方法可以通过扩展具有IAM的大多数前进模型来轻松实现，并且网络可以通过反向传播有效地培训。在三个基准图像数据集上进行的实验证明了备的有效性。代码已在https://github.com/easezyc/deep-transfer -learning上获得。

Domain adaptation aims at generalizing a high-performance learner on a target domain via utilizing the knowledge distilled from a source domain which has a different but related data distribution. One solution to domain adaptation is to learn domain invariant feature representations while the learned representations should also be discriminative in prediction. To learn such representations, domain adaptation frameworks usually include a domain invariant representation learning approach to measure and reduce the domain discrepancy, as well as a discriminator for classification. Inspired by Wasserstein GAN, in this paper we propose a novel approach to learn domain invariant feature representations, namely Wasserstein Distance Guided Representation Learning (WD-GRL). WDGRL utilizes a neural network, denoted by the domain critic, to estimate empirical Wasserstein distance between the source and target samples and optimizes the feature extractor network to minimize the estimated Wasserstein distance in an adversarial manner. The theoretical advantages of Wasserstein distance for domain adaptation lie in its gradient property and promising generalization bound. Empirical studies on common sentiment and image classification adaptation datasets demonstrate that our proposed WDGRL outperforms the state-of-the-art domain invariant representation learning approaches.

Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) aims to transfer knowledge from a well-labeled source domain to a different but related unlabeled target domain with identical label space. Currently, the main workhorse for solving UDA is domain alignment, which has proven successful. However, it is often difficult to find an appropriate source domain with identical label space. A more practical scenario is so-called partial domain adaptation (PDA) in which the source label set or space subsumes the target one. Unfortunately, in PDA, due to the existence of the irrelevant categories in the source domain, it is quite hard to obtain a perfect alignment, thus resulting in mode collapse and negative transfer. Although several efforts have been made by down-weighting the irrelevant source categories, the strategies used tend to be burdensome and risky since exactly which irrelevant categories are unknown. These challenges motivate us to find a relatively simpler alternative to solve PDA. To achieve this, we first provide a thorough theoretical analysis, which illustrates that the target risk is bounded by both model smoothness and between-domain discrepancy. Considering the difficulty of perfect alignment in solving PDA, we turn to focus on the model smoothness while discard the riskier domain alignment to enhance the adaptability of the model. Specifically, we instantiate the model smoothness as a quite simple intra-domain structure preserving (IDSP). To our best knowledge, this is the first naive attempt to address the PDA without domain alignment. Finally, our empirical results on multiple benchmark datasets demonstrate that IDSP is not only superior to the PDA SOTAs by a significant margin on some benchmarks (e.g., +10% on Cl->Rw and +8% on Ar->Rw ), but also complementary to domain alignment in the standard UDA

无监督域适应（UDA）旨在将知识从相关但不同的良好标记的源域转移到新的未标记的目标域。大多数现有的UDA方法需要访问源数据，因此当数据保密而不相配在隐私问题时，不适用。本文旨在仅使用培训的分类模型来解决现实设置，而不是访问源数据。为了有效地利用适应源模型，我们提出了一种新颖的方法，称为源假设转移（拍摄），其通过将目标数据特征拟合到冻结源分类模块（表示分类假设）来学习目标域的特征提取模块。具体而言，拍摄挖掘出于特征提取模块的信息最大化和自我监督学习，以确保目标特征通过同一假设与看不见的源数据的特征隐式对齐。此外，我们提出了一种新的标签转移策略，它基于预测的置信度（标签信息），然后采用半监督学习来将目标数据分成两个分裂，然后提高目标域中的较为自信预测的准确性。如果通过拍摄获得预测，我们表示标记转移为拍摄++。关于两位数分类和对象识别任务的广泛实验表明，拍摄和射击++实现了与最先进的结果超越或相当的结果，展示了我们对各种视域适应问题的方法的有效性。代码可用于\ url {https：//github.com/tim-learn/shot-plus}。

语义分割在广泛的计算机视觉应用中起着基本作用，提供了全球对图像​​的理解的关键信息。然而，最先进的模型依赖于大量的注释样本，其比在诸如图像分类的任务中获得更昂贵的昂贵的样本。由于未标记的数据替代地获得更便宜，因此无监督的域适应达到了语义分割社区的广泛成功并不令人惊讶。本调查致力于总结这一令人难以置信的快速增长的领域的五年，这包含了语义细分本身的重要性，以及将分段模型适应新环境的关键需求。我们提出了最重要的语义分割方法;我们对语义分割的域适应技术提供了全面的调查;我们揭示了多域学习，域泛化，测试时间适应或无源域适应等较新的趋势;我们通过描述在语义细分研究中最广泛使用的数据集和基准测试来结束本调查。我们希望本调查将在学术界和工业中提供具有全面参考指导的研究人员，并有助于他们培养现场的新研究方向。

半监督域适应（SSDA）是一种具有挑战性的问题，需要克服1）以朝向域的较差的数据和2）分布换档的方法。不幸的是，由于培训数据偏差朝标标样本训练，域适应（DA）和半监督学习（SSL）方法的简单组合通常无法解决这两个目的。在本文中，我们介绍了一种自适应结构学习方法，以规范SSL和DA的合作。灵感来自多视图学习，我们建议的框架由共享特征编码器网络和两个分类器网络组成，用于涉及矛盾的目的。其中，其中一个分类器被应用于组目标特征以提高级别的密度，扩大了鲁棒代表学习的分类集群的间隙。同时，其他分类器作为符号器，试图散射源功能以增强决策边界的平滑度。目标聚类和源扩展的迭代使目标特征成为相应源点的扩张边界内的封闭良好。对于跨域特征对齐和部分标记的数据学习的联合地址，我们应用最大平均差异（MMD）距离最小化和自培训（ST）将矛盾结构投影成共享视图以进行可靠的最终决定。对标准SSDA基准的实验结果包括Domainnet和Office-Home，展示了我们对最先进的方法的方法的准确性和稳健性。

最近的智能故障诊断（IFD）的进展大大依赖于深度代表学习和大量标记数据。然而，机器通常以各种工作条件操作，或者目标任务具有不同的分布，其中包含用于训练的收集数据（域移位问题）。此外，目标域中的新收集的测试数据通常是未标记的，导致基于无监督的深度转移学习（基于UDTL为基础的）IFD问题。虽然它已经实现了巨大的发展，但标准和开放的源代码框架以及基于UDTL的IFD的比较研究尚未建立。在本文中，我们根据不同的任务，构建新的分类系统并对基于UDTL的IFD进行全面审查。对一些典型方法和数据集的比较分析显示了基于UDTL的IFD中的一些开放和基本问题，这很少研究，包括特征，骨干，负转移，物理前导等的可转移性，强调UDTL的重要性和再现性 - 基于IFD，整个测试框架将发布给研究界以促进未来的研究。总之，发布的框架和比较研究可以作为扩展界面和基本结果，以便对基于UDTL的IFD进行新的研究。代码框架可用于\ url {https:/github.com/zhaozhibin/udtl}。

虽然无监督的域适应（UDA）算法，即，近年来只有来自源域的标记数据，大多数算法和理论结果侧重于单源无监督域适应（SUDA）。然而，在实际情况下，标记的数据通常可以从多个不同的源收集，并且它们可能不仅不同于目标域而且彼此不同。因此，来自多个源的域适配器不应以相同的方式进行建模。最近基于深度学习的多源无监督域适应（Muda）算法专注于通过在通用特征空间中的所有源极和目标域的分布对齐来提取所有域的公共域不变表示。但是，往往很难提取Muda中所有域的相同域不变表示。此外，这些方法匹配分布而不考虑类之间的域特定的决策边界。为了解决这些问题，我们提出了一个新的框架，具有两个对准阶段的Muda，它不仅将每对源和目标域的分布对齐，而且还通过利用域特定的分类器的输出对准决策边界。广泛的实验表明，我们的方法可以对图像分类的流行基准数据集实现显着的结果。

Deep networks have been successfully applied to learn transferable features for adapting models from a source domain to a different target domain.In this paper, we present joint adaptation networks (JAN), which learn a transfer network by aligning the joint distributions of multiple domain-specific layers across domains based on a joint maximum mean discrepancy (JMMD) criterion. Adversarial training strategy is adopted to maximize JMMD such that the distributions of the source and target domains are made more distinguishable. Learning can be performed by stochastic gradient descent with the gradients computed by back-propagation in linear-time. Experiments testify that our model yields state of the art results on standard datasets.

Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) via deep learning has attracted appealing attention for tackling domain-shift problems caused by distribution discrepancy across different domains. Existing UDA approaches highly depend on the accessibility of source domain data, which is usually limited in practical scenarios due to privacy protection, data storage and transmission cost, and computation burden. To tackle this issue, many source-free unsupervised domain adaptation (SFUDA) methods have been proposed recently, which perform knowledge transfer from a pre-trained source model to unlabeled target domain with source data inaccessible. A comprehensive review of these works on SFUDA is of great significance. In this paper, we provide a timely and systematic literature review of existing SFUDA approaches from a technical perspective. Specifically, we categorize current SFUDA studies into two groups, i.e., white-box SFUDA and black-box SFUDA, and further divide them into finer subcategories based on different learning strategies they use. We also investigate the challenges of methods in each subcategory, discuss the advantages/disadvantages of white-box and black-box SFUDA methods, conclude the commonly used benchmark datasets, and summarize the popular techniques for improved generalizability of models learned without using source data. We finally discuss several promising future directions in this field.

Recent studies reveal that a deep neural network can learn transferable features which generalize well to novel tasks for domain adaptation. However, as deep features eventually transition from general to specific along the network, the feature transferability drops significantly in higher layers with increasing domain discrepancy. Hence, it is important to formally reduce the dataset bias and enhance the transferability in task-specific layers. In this paper, we propose a new Deep Adaptation Network (DAN) architecture, which generalizes deep convolutional neural network to the domain adaptation scenario. In DAN, hidden representations of all task-specific layers are embedded in a reproducing kernel Hilbert space where the mean embeddings of different domain distributions can be explicitly matched. The domain discrepancy is further reduced using an optimal multi-kernel selection method for mean embedding matching. DAN can learn transferable features with statistical guarantees, and can scale linearly by unbiased estimate of kernel embedding. Extensive empirical evidence shows that the proposed architecture yields state-of-the-art image classification error rates on standard domain adaptation benchmarks.

对分布（OOD）数据的概括是人类自然的能力，但对于机器而言挑战。这是因为大多数学习算法强烈依赖于i.i.d.〜对源/目标数据的假设，这在域转移导致的实践中通常会违反。域的概括（DG）旨在通过仅使用源数据进行模型学习来实现OOD的概括。在过去的十年中，DG的研究取得了长足的进步，导致了广泛的方法论，例如，基于域的一致性，元学习，数据增强或合奏学习的方法，仅举几例；还在各个应用领域进行了研究，包括计算机视觉，语音识别，自然语言处理，医学成像和强化学习。在本文中，首次提供了DG中的全面文献综述，以总结过去十年来的发展。具体而言，我们首先通过正式定义DG并将其与其他相关领域（如域适应和转移学习）联系起来来涵盖背景。然后，我们对现有方法和理论进行了彻底的审查。最后，我们通过有关未来研究方向的见解和讨论来总结这项调查。

Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) aims to leverage the knowledge learned from a labeled source dataset to solve similar tasks in a new unlabeled domain. Prior UDA methods typically require to access the source data when learning to adapt the model, making them risky and inefficient for decentralized private data. This work tackles a practical setting where only a trained source model is available and investigates how we can effectively utilize such a model without source data to solve UDA problems. We propose a simple yet generic representation learning framework, named Source HypOthesis Transfer (SHOT). SHOT freezes the classifier module (hypothesis) of the source model and learns the target-specific feature extraction module by exploiting both information maximization and selfsupervised pseudo-labeling to implicitly align representations from the target domains to the source hypothesis. To verify its versatility, we evaluate SHOT in a variety of adaptation cases including closed-set, partial-set, and open-set domain adaptation. Experiments indicate that SHOT yields state-of-the-art results among multiple domain adaptation benchmarks.