It is possible to combine multiple latent-variable models of the same data by multiplying their probability distributions together and then renormalizing. This way of combining individual "expert" models makes it hard to generate samples from the combined model but easy to infer the values of the latent variables of each expert, because the combination rule ensures that the latent variables of different experts are conditionally independent when given the data. A product of experts (PoE) is therefore an interesting candidate for a perceptual system in which rapid inference is vital and generation is unnecessary. Training a PoE by maximizing the likelihood of the data is difficult because it is hard even to approximate the derivatives of the renormalization term in the combination rule. Fortunately, a PoE can be trained using a different objective function called "contrastive divergence" whose derivatives with regard to the parameters can be approximated accurately and efficiently. Examples are presented of contrastive divergence learning using several types of expert on several types of data.

We show how to use "complementary priors" to eliminate the explainingaway effects that make inference difficult in densely connected belief nets that have many hidden layers. Using complementary priors, we derive a fast, greedy algorithm that can learn deep, directed belief networks one layer at a time, provided the top two layers form an undirected associative memory. The fast, greedy algorithm is used to initialize a slower learning procedure that fine-tunes the weights using a contrastive version of the wake-sleep algorithm. After fine-tuning, a network with three hidden layers forms a very good generative model of the joint distribution of handwritten digit images and their labels. This generative model gives better digit classification than the best discriminative learning algorithms. The low-dimensional manifolds on which the digits lie are modeled by long ravines in the free-energy landscape of the top-level associative memory, and it is easy to explore these ravines by using the directed connections to display what the associative memory has in mind.

这项正在进行的工作旨在为统计学习提供统一的介绍，从诸如GMM和HMM等经典模型到现代神经网络（如VAE和扩散模型）缓慢地构建。如今，有许多互联网资源可以孤立地解释这一点或新的机器学习算法，但是它们并没有（也不能在如此简短的空间中）将这些算法彼此连接起来，或者与统计模型的经典文献相连现代算法出现了。同样明显缺乏的是一个单一的符号系统，尽管对那些已经熟悉材料的人（如这些帖子的作者）不满意，但对新手的入境造成了重大障碍。同样，我的目的是将各种模型（尽可能）吸收到一个用于推理和学习的框架上，表明（以及为什么）如何以最小的变化将一个模型更改为另一个模型（其中一些是新颖的，另一些是文献中的）。某些背景当然是必要的。我以为读者熟悉基本的多变量计算，概率和统计以及线性代数。这本书的目标当然不是​​完整性，而是从基本知识到过去十年中极强大的新模型的直线路径或多或少。然后，目标是补充而不是替换，诸如Bishop的\ emph {模式识别和机器学习}之类的综合文本，该文本现在已经15岁了。

The success of machine learning algorithms generally depends on data representation, and we hypothesize that this is because different representations can entangle and hide more or less the different explanatory factors of variation behind the data. Although specific domain knowledge can be used to help design representations, learning with generic priors can also be used, and the quest for AI is motivating the design of more powerful representation-learning algorithms implementing such priors. This paper reviews recent work in the area of unsupervised feature learning and deep learning, covering advances in probabilistic models, auto-encoders, manifold learning, and deep networks. This motivates longer-term unanswered questions about the appropriate objectives for learning good representations, for computing representations (i.e., inference), and the geometrical connections between representation learning, density estimation and manifold learning.

The aim of this paper is to introduce a new learning procedure for neural networks and to demonstrate that it works well enough on a few small problems to be worth further investigation. The Forward-Forward algorithm replaces the forward and backward passes of backpropagation by two forward passes, one with positive (i.e. real) data and the other with negative data which could be generated by the network itself. Each layer has its own objective function which is simply to have high goodness for positive data and low goodness for negative data. The sum of the squared activities in a layer can be used as the goodness but there are many other possibilities, including minus the sum of the squared activities. If the positive and negative passes could be separated in time, the negative passes could be done offline, which would make the learning much simpler in the positive pass and allow video to be pipelined through the network without ever storing activities or stopping to propagate derivatives.

这是一门专门针对STEM学生开发的介绍性机器学习课程。我们的目标是为有兴趣的读者提供基础知识，以在自己的项目中使用机器学习，并将自己熟悉术语作为进一步阅读相关文献的基础。在这些讲义中，我们讨论受监督，无监督和强化学习。注释从没有神经网络的机器学习方法的说明开始，例如原理分析，T-SNE，聚类以及线性回归和线性分类器。我们继续介绍基本和先进的神经网络结构，例如密集的进料和常规神经网络，经常性的神经网络，受限的玻尔兹曼机器，（变性）自动编码器，生成的对抗性网络。讨论了潜在空间表示的解释性问题，并使用梦和对抗性攻击的例子。最后一部分致力于加强学习，我们在其中介绍了价值功能和政策学习的基本概念。

Multilayer Neural Networks trained with the backpropagation algorithm constitute the best example of a successful Gradient-Based Learning technique. Given an appropriate network architecture, Gradient-Based Learning algorithms can be used to synthesize a complex decision surface that can classify high-dimensional patterns such as handwritten characters, with minimal preprocessing. This paper reviews various methods applied to handwritten character recognition and compares them on a standard handwritten digit recognition task. Convolutional Neural Networks, that are specifically designed to deal with the variability of 2D shapes, are shown to outperform all other techniques.Real-life document recognition systems are composed of multiple modules including eld extraction, segmentation, recognition, and language modeling. A new learning paradigm, called Graph Transformer Networks (GTN), allows such multi-module systems to be trained globally using Gradient-Based methods so as to minimize an overall performance measure.Two systems for on-line handwriting recognition are described. Experiments demonstrate the advantage of global training, and the exibility of Graph Transformer Networks.A Graph Transformer Network for reading bank check is also described. It uses Convolutional Neural Network character recognizers combined with global training techniques to provides record accuracy on business and personal checks. It is deployed commercially and reads several million checks per day.

无监督的机器学习的目的是删除复杂的高维数据的表示形式，从而解释数据中的重要潜在因素以及操纵它们以生成具有理想功能的新数据。这些方法通常依赖于对抗方案，在该方案中，对代表进行调整以避免歧视者能够重建特定的数据信息（标签）。我们提出了一种简单，有效的方法，即在无需培训对抗歧视器的情况下解开表示形式，并将我们的方法应用于受限的玻尔兹曼机器（RBM），这是最简单的基于代表的生成模型之一。我们的方法依赖于在训练过程中引入对权重的足够约束，这使我们能够将有关标签的信息集中在一小部分潜在变量上。该方法的有效性在MNIST数据集，二维ISING模型和蛋白质家族的分类法上说明了。此外，我们还展示了我们的框架如何从数据的对数模型中计算成本，与其表示形式的删除相关。

预测性编码提供了对皮质功能的潜在统一说明 - 假设大脑的核心功能是最小化有关世界生成模型的预测错误。该理论与贝叶斯大脑框架密切相关，在过去的二十年中，在理论和认知神经科学领域都产生了重大影响。基于经验测试的预测编码的改进和扩展的理论和数学模型，以及评估其在大脑中实施的潜在生物学合理性以及该理论所做的具体神经生理学和心理学预测。尽管存在这种持久的知名度，但仍未对预测编码理论，尤其是该领域的最新发展进行全面回顾。在这里，我们提供了核心数学结构和预测编码的逻辑的全面综述，从而补充了文献中最新的教程。我们还回顾了该框架中的各种经典和最新工作，从可以实施预测性编码的神经生物学现实的微电路到预测性编码和广泛使用的错误算法的重新传播之间的紧密关系，以及对近距离的调查。预测性编码和现代机器学习技术之间的关系。

自动编码变化贝叶斯（AEVB）是一种用于拟合潜在变量模型（无监督学习的有前途的方向）的强大而通用的算法，并且是训练变量自动编码器（VAE）的众所周知的。在本教程中，我们专注于从经典的期望最大化（EM）算法中激励AEVB，而不是确定性自动编码器。尽管自然而有些不言而喻，但在最近的深度学习文献中并未强调EM与AEVB之间的联系，我们认为强调这种联系可以改善社区对AEVB的理解。特别是，我们发现（1）优化有关推理参数的证据下限（ELBO）作为近似E-step，并且（2）优化ELBO相对于生成参数作为近似M-step；然后，与AEVB中的同时进行同时进行，然后同时拧紧并推动Elbo。我们讨论如何将近似E-Step解释为执行变异推断。详细讨论了诸如摊销和修复技巧之类的重要概念。最后，我们从划痕中得出了非深度和几个深层变量模型的AEVB训练程序，包括VAE，有条件的VAE，高斯混合物VAE和变异RNN。我们希望读者能够将AEVB认识为一种通用算法，可用于拟合广泛的潜在变量模型（不仅仅是VAE），并将AEVB应用于自己的研究领域中出现的此类模型。所有纳入型号的Pytorch代码均可公开使用。

This paper presents a tutorial introduction to the use of variational methods for inference and learning in graphical models (Bayesian networks and Markov random fields). We present a number of examples of graphical models, including the QMR-DT database, the sigmoid belief network, the Boltzmann machine, and several variants of hidden Markov models, in which it is infeasible to run exact inference algorithms. We then introduce variational methods, which exploit laws of large numbers to transform the original graphical model into a simplified graphical model in which inference is efficient. Inference in the simpified model provides bounds on probabilities of interest in the original model. We describe a general framework for generating variational transformations based on convex duality. Finally we return to the examples and demonstrate how variational algorithms can be formulated in each case.

We explore an original strategy for building deep networks, based on stacking layers of denoising autoencoders which are trained locally to denoise corrupted versions of their inputs. The resulting algorithm is a straightforward variation on the stacking of ordinary autoencoders. It is however shown on a benchmark of classification problems to yield significantly lower classification error, thus bridging the performance gap with deep belief networks (DBN), and in several cases surpassing it. Higher level representations learnt in this purely unsupervised fashion also help boost the performance of subsequent SVM classifiers. Qualitative experiments show that, contrary to ordinary autoencoders, denoising autoencoders are able to learn Gabor-like edge detectors from natural image patches and larger stroke detectors from digit images. This work clearly establishes the value of using a denoising criterion as a tractable unsupervised objective to guide the learning of useful higher level representations.

Energy-Based Models (EBMs) capture dependencies between variables by associating a scalar energy to each configuration of the variables. Inference consists in clamping the value of observed variables and finding configurations of the remaining variables that minimize the energy. Learning consists in finding an energy function in which observed configurations of the variables are given lower energies than unobserved ones. The EBM approach provides a common theoretical framework for many learning models, including traditional discriminative and generative approaches, as well as graph-transformer networks, conditional random fields, maximum margin Markov networks, and several manifold learning methods.Probabilistic models must be properly normalized, which sometimes requires evaluating intractable integrals over the space of all possible variable configurations. Since EBMs have no requirement for proper normalization, this problem is naturally circumvented. EBMs can be viewed as a form of non-probabilistic factor graphs, and they provide considerably more flexibility in the design of architectures and training criteria than probabilistic approaches.

神经生成模型可用于学习从数据的复杂概率分布，从它们中进行采样，并产生概率密度估计。我们提出了一种用于开发由大脑预测处理理论启发的神经生成模型的计算框架。根据预测加工理论，大脑中的神经元形成一个层次结构，其中一个级别的神经元形成关于来自另一个层次的感觉输入的期望。这些神经元根据其期望与观察到的信号之间的差异更新其本地模型。以类似的方式，我们的生成模型中的人造神经元预测了邻近的神经元的作用，并根据预测匹配现实的程度来调整它们的参数。在这项工作中，我们表明，在我们的框架内学到的神经生成模型在练习中跨越多个基准数据集和度量来表现良好，并且保持竞争或显着优于具有类似功能的其他生成模型（例如变形自动编码器）。

现代深度学习方法构成了令人难以置信的强大工具，以解决无数的挑战问题。然而，由于深度学习方法作为黑匣子运作，因此与其预测相关的不确定性往往是挑战量化。贝叶斯统计数据提供了一种形式主义来理解和量化与深度神经网络预测相关的不确定性。本教程概述了相关文献和完整的工具集，用于设计，实施，列车，使用和评估贝叶斯神经网络，即使用贝叶斯方法培训的随机人工神经网络。

We marry ideas from deep neural networks and approximate Bayesian inference to derive a generalised class of deep, directed generative models, endowed with a new algorithm for scalable inference and learning. Our algorithm introduces a recognition model to represent an approximate posterior distribution and uses this for optimisation of a variational lower bound. We develop stochastic backpropagation -rules for gradient backpropagation through stochastic variables -and derive an algorithm that allows for joint optimisation of the parameters of both the generative and recognition models. We demonstrate on several real-world data sets that by using stochastic backpropagation and variational inference, we obtain models that are able to generate realistic samples of data, allow for accurate imputations of missing data, and provide a useful tool for high-dimensional data visualisation.

与CNN的分类，分割或对象检测相比，生成网络的目标和方法根本不同。最初，它们不是作为图像分析工具，而是生成自然看起来的图像。已经提出了对抗性训练范式来稳定生成方法，并已被证明是非常成功的 - 尽管绝不是第一次尝试。本章对生成对抗网络（GAN）的动机进行了基本介绍，并通​​过抽象基本任务和工作机制并得出了早期实用方法的困难来追溯其成功的道路。将显示进行更稳定的训练方法，也将显示出不良收敛及其原因的典型迹象。尽管本章侧重于用于图像生成和图像分析的gan，但对抗性训练范式本身并非特定于图像，并且在图像分析中也概括了任务。在将GAN与最近进入场景的进一步生成建模方法进行对比之前，将闻名图像语义分割和异常检测的架构示例。这将允许对限制的上下文化观点，但也可以对gans有好处。

统计模型是机器学习的核心，具有广泛适用性，跨各种下游任务。模型通常由通过最大似然估计从数据估计的自由参数控制。但是，当面对现实世界数据集时，许多模型运行到一个关键问题：它们是在完全观察到的数据方面配制的，而在实践中，数据集会困扰缺失数据。来自不完整数据的统计模型估计理论在概念上类似于潜在变量模型的估计，其中存在强大的工具，例如变分推理（VI）。然而，与标准潜在变量模型相比，具有不完整数据的参数估计通常需要估计缺失变量的指数 - 许多条件分布，因此使标准的VI方法是棘手的。通过引入变分Gibbs推理（VGI），是一种新的通用方法来解决这个差距，以估计来自不完整数据的统计模型参数。我们在一组合成和实际估算任务上验证VGI，从不完整的数据中估算重要的机器学习模型，VAE和标准化流程。拟议的方法，同时通用，实现比现有的特定模型特定估计方法竞争或更好的性能。

How can we perform efficient inference and learning in directed probabilistic models, in the presence of continuous latent variables with intractable posterior distributions, and large datasets? We introduce a stochastic variational inference and learning algorithm that scales to large datasets and, under some mild differentiability conditions, even works in the intractable case. Our contributions is two-fold. First, we show that a reparameterization of the variational lower bound yields a lower bound estimator that can be straightforwardly optimized using standard stochastic gradient methods. Second, we show that for i.i.d. datasets with continuous latent variables per datapoint, posterior inference can be made especially efficient by fitting an approximate inference model (also called a recognition model) to the intractable posterior using the proposed lower bound estimator. Theoretical advantages are reflected in experimental results.