In this paper we i n vestigate the use of receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve f o r the evaluation of machine learning algorithms. In particular, we i n vestigate the use of the area under the ROC curve ( A UC) as a measure of classi er performance. The machine learning algorithms used are chosen to be representative of those in common use: two decision trees (C4.5 and Multiscale Classi er) two n e u r a l n e t works (Perceptron and Multi-layer Perceptron) and two statistical methods (K-Nearest Neighbours and a Quadratic Discriminant F unction).The evaluation is done using six, \real world," medical diagnostics data sets that contain a varying numbers of inputs and samples, but are primarily continuous input, binary classi cation problems. We i d e n tify three forms of bias that can a ect comparisons of this type (estimation, selection, and expert bias) and detail the methods used to avoid them. We compare and discuss the use of AUC with the conventional measure of classi er performance, overall accuracy (the probability of a correct response). It is found that AUC exhibits a number of desirable properties when compared to overall accuracy: increased sensitivity in Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests a standard error that decreased as both AUC and the number of test samples increased decision threshold independent invariant t o a priori class probabilities and it gives an indication of the amount o f \ w ork done" by a classi cation scheme, giving low scores to both random and \one class only" classi ers.It has been known for some time that AUC actually represents the probability that a randomly chosen positive example is correctly rated (ranked) with greater suspicion than a randomly chosen negative example. Moreover, this probability of correct ranking is the same quantity estimated by the non-parametric Wilcoxon statistic. We use this equivalence to show that the standard deviation of AUC, estimated using 10 fold cross validation, is a reliable estimator of the standard error estimated using the Wilcoxon test. The paper concludes with the recommendation that AUC be used in preference to overall accuracy when \single number" evaluation of machine learning algorithms is required.

一个躺在胸腔里的心脏的四个基本腔腔对一个人的生存至关重要，但讽刺地证明是最脆弱的。心血管疾病（CVD）也通常被称为心脏病，在过去几十年中，人类在人类死亡原因中稳步发展。考虑到这一点统计，很明显，患有CVDS的患者需要快速且正确的诊断，以便于早期治疗来减少死亡的机会。本文试图利用提供的数据，以培训分类模型，如逻辑回归，k最近邻居，支持向量机，决策树，高斯天真贝叶斯，随机森林和多层感知（人工神经网络），最终使用柔软投票合奏技术，以便尽可能多地诊断。

An approach to the construction of classifiers from imbalanced datasets is described. A dataset is imbalanced if the classification categories are not approximately equally represented. Often real-world data sets are predominately composed of "normal" examples with only a small percentage of "abnormal" or "interesting" examples. It is also the case that the cost of misclassifying an abnormal (interesting) example as a normal example is often much higher than the cost of the reverse error. Under-sampling of the majority (normal) class has been proposed as a good means of increasing the sensitivity of a classifier to the minority class. This paper shows that a combination of our method of over-sampling the minority (abnormal) class and under-sampling the majority (normal) class can achieve better classifier performance (in ROC space) than only under-sampling the majority class. This paper also shows that a combination of our method of over-sampling the minority class and under-sampling the majority class can achieve better classifier performance (in ROC space) than varying the loss ratios in Ripper or class priors in Naive Bayes. Our method of over-sampling the minority class involves creating synthetic minority class examples. Experiments are performed using C4.5, Ripper and a Naive Bayes classifier. The method is evaluated using the area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic curve (AUC) and the ROC convex hull strategy.

While methods for comparing two learning algorithms on a single data set have been scrutinized for quite some time already, the issue of statistical tests for comparisons of more algorithms on multiple data sets, which is even more essential to typical machine learning studies, has been all but ignored. This article reviews the current practice and then theoretically and empirically examines several suitable tests. Based on that, we recommend a set of simple, yet safe and robust non-parametric tests for statistical comparisons of classifiers: the Wilcoxon signed ranks test for comparison of two classifiers and the Friedman test with the corresponding post-hoc tests for comparison of more classifiers over multiple data sets. Results of the latter can also be neatly presented with the newly introduced CD (critical difference) diagrams.

在整个宇宙学模拟中，初始条件中的物质密度场的性质对今天形成的结构的特征具有决定性的影响。在本文中，我们使用随机森林分类算法来推断暗物质颗粒是否追溯到初始条件，最终将在肿块上高于一些阈值的暗物质卤素。该问题可能被构成为二进制分类任务，其中物质密度字段的初始条件映射到由光环发现者程序提供的分类标签。我们的研究结果表明，随机森林是有效的工具，无法在不运行完整过程的情况下预测宇宙学模拟的输出。在将来可能使用这些技术来降低计算时间并更有效地探索不同暗物质/暗能候选对宇宙结构的形成的影响。

Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) graphs are useful for organizing classifiers and visualizing their performance. ROC graphs are commonly used in medical decision making, and in recent years have been used increasingly in machine learning and data mining research. Although ROC graphs are apparently simple, there are some common misconceptions and pitfalls when using them in practice. The purpose of this article is to serve as an introduction to ROC graphs and as a guide for using them in research.

This chapter is dedicated to the assessment and performance estimation of machine learning (ML) algorithms, a topic that is equally important to the construction of these algorithms, in particular in the context of cyberphysical security design. The literature is full of nonparametric methods to estimate a statistic from just one available dataset through resampling techniques, e.g., jackknife, bootstrap and cross validation (CV). Special statistics of great interest are the error rate and the area under the ROC curve (AUC) of a classification rule. The importance of these resampling methods stems from the fact that they require no knowledge about the probability distribution of the data or the construction details of the ML algorithm. This chapter provides a concise review of this literature to establish a coherent theoretical framework for these methods that can estimate both the error rate (a one-sample statistic) and the AUC (a two-sample statistic). The resampling methods are usually computationally expensive, because they rely on repeating the training and testing of a ML algorithm after each resampling iteration. Therefore, the practical applicability of some of these methods may be limited to the traditional ML algorithms rather than the very computationally demanding approaches of the recent deep neural networks (DNN). In the field of cyberphysical security, many applications generate structured (tabular) data, which can be fed to all traditional ML approaches. This is in contrast to the DNN approaches, which favor unstructured data, e.g., images, text, voice, etc.; hence, the relevance of this chapter to this field.%

This paper proposes a new tree-based ensemble method for supervised classification and regression problems. It essentially consists of randomizing strongly both attribute and cut-point choice while splitting a tree node. In the extreme case, it builds totally randomized trees whose structures are independent of the output values of the learning sample. The strength of the randomization can be tuned to problem specifics by the appropriate choice of a parameter. We evaluate the robustness of the default choice of this parameter, and we also provide insight on how to adjust it in particular situations. Besides accuracy, the main strength of the resulting algorithm is computational efficiency. A bias/variance analysis of the Extra-Trees algorithm is also provided as well as a geometrical and a kernel characterization of the models induced.

在医疗保健系统中，需要患者使用可穿戴设备进行远程数据收集和对健康数据的实时监控以及健康状况的状态。可穿戴设备的这种采用导致收集和传输的数据量显着增加。由于设备由较小的电池电源运行，因此由于设备的高处理要求以进行数据收集和传输，因此可以快速减少它们。鉴于医疗数据的重要性，必须所有传输数据遵守严格的完整性和可用性要求。减少医疗保健数据的量和传输频率将通过使用推理算法改善设备电池寿命。有一个以准确性和效率改善传输指标的问题，彼此之间的权衡，例如提高准确性会降低效率。本文表明，机器学习可用于分析复杂的健康数据指标，例如数据传输的准确性和效率，以使用Levenberg-Marquardt算法来克服权衡问题，从而增强这两个指标，从而通过少较少的样本来传输，同时保持维护准确性。使用标准心率数据集测试该算法以比较指标。结果表明，LMA最好以3.33倍的效率进行样本数据尺寸和79.17％的精度，在7种不同的采样案例中具有相似的准确性，用于测试，但表明效率提高。与具有高效率的现有方法相比，这些提出的方法使用机器学习可以显着改善两个指标，而无需牺牲其他指标。

Dataset scaling, also known as normalization, is an essential preprocessing step in a machine learning pipeline. It is aimed at adjusting attributes scales in a way that they all vary within the same range. This transformation is known to improve the performance of classification models, but there are several scaling techniques to choose from, and this choice is not generally done carefully. In this paper, we execute a broad experiment comparing the impact of 5 scaling techniques on the performances of 20 classification algorithms among monolithic and ensemble models, applying them to 82 publicly available datasets with varying imbalance ratios. Results show that the choice of scaling technique matters for classification performance, and the performance difference between the best and the worst scaling technique is relevant and statistically significant in most cases. They also indicate that choosing an inadequate technique can be more detrimental to classification performance than not scaling the data at all. We also show how the performance variation of an ensemble model, considering different scaling techniques, tends to be dictated by that of its base model. Finally, we discuss the relationship between a model's sensitivity to the choice of scaling technique and its performance and provide insights into its applicability on different model deployment scenarios. Full results and source code for the experiments in this paper are available in a GitHub repository.\footnote{https://github.com/amorimlb/scaling\_matters}

Learning curves provide insight into the dependence of a learner's generalization performance on the training set size. This important tool can be used for model selection, to predict the effect of more training data, and to reduce the computational complexity of model training and hyperparameter tuning. This review recounts the origins of the term, provides a formal definition of the learning curve, and briefly covers basics such as its estimation. Our main contribution is a comprehensive overview of the literature regarding the shape of learning curves. We discuss empirical and theoretical evidence that supports well-behaved curves that often have the shape of a power law or an exponential. We consider the learning curves of Gaussian processes, the complex shapes they can display, and the factors influencing them. We draw specific attention to examples of learning curves that are ill-behaved, showing worse learning performance with more training data. To wrap up, we point out various open problems that warrant deeper empirical and theoretical investigation. All in all, our review underscores that learning curves are surprisingly diverse and no universal model can be identified.

Label noise is an important issue in classification, with many potential negative consequences. For example, the accuracy of predictions may decrease, whereas the complexity of inferred models and the number of necessary training samples may increase. Many works in the literature have been devoted to the study of label noise and the development of techniques to deal with label noise. However, the field lacks a comprehensive survey on the different types of label noise, their consequences and the algorithms that consider label noise. This paper proposes to fill this gap. First, the definitions and sources of label noise are considered and a taxonomy of the types of label noise is proposed. Second, the potential consequences of label noise are discussed. Third, label noise-robust, label noise cleansing, and label noise-tolerant algorithms are reviewed. For each category of approaches, a short discussion is proposed to help the practitioner to choose the most suitable technique in its own particular field of application. Eventually, the design of experiments is also discussed, what may interest the researchers who would like to test their own algorithms. In this paper, label noise consists of mislabeled instances: no additional information is assumed to be available like e.g. confidences on labels.

尽管自动图像分析的重要性不断增加，但最近的元研究揭示了有关算法验证的主要缺陷。性能指标对于使用的自动算法的有意义，客观和透明的性能评估和验证尤其是关键，但是在使用特定的指标进行给定的图像分析任务时，对实际陷阱的关注相对较少。这些通常与（1）无视固有的度量属性，例如在存在类不平衡或小目标结构的情况下的行为，（2）无视固有的数据集属性，例如测试的非独立性案例和（3）无视指标应反映的实际生物医学领域的兴趣。该动态文档的目的是说明图像分析领域通常应用的性能指标的重要局限性。在这种情况下，它重点介绍了可以用作图像级分类，语义分割，实例分割或对象检测任务的生物医学图像分析问题。当前版本是基于由全球60多家机构的国际图像分析专家进行的关于指标的Delphi流程。

Multilayer Neural Networks trained with the backpropagation algorithm constitute the best example of a successful Gradient-Based Learning technique. Given an appropriate network architecture, Gradient-Based Learning algorithms can be used to synthesize a complex decision surface that can classify high-dimensional patterns such as handwritten characters, with minimal preprocessing. This paper reviews various methods applied to handwritten character recognition and compares them on a standard handwritten digit recognition task. Convolutional Neural Networks, that are specifically designed to deal with the variability of 2D shapes, are shown to outperform all other techniques.Real-life document recognition systems are composed of multiple modules including eld extraction, segmentation, recognition, and language modeling. A new learning paradigm, called Graph Transformer Networks (GTN), allows such multi-module systems to be trained globally using Gradient-Based methods so as to minimize an overall performance measure.Two systems for on-line handwriting recognition are described. Experiments demonstrate the advantage of global training, and the exibility of Graph Transformer Networks.A Graph Transformer Network for reading bank check is also described. It uses Convolutional Neural Network character recognizers combined with global training techniques to provides record accuracy on business and personal checks. It is deployed commercially and reads several million checks per day.

机器学习（ML）应用程序的数据量不断增长。不仅是观察的数量，特别是测量变量的数量（特征）增加了持续的数字化。选择最适合预测建模的功能是ML在商业和研究中取得成功的重要杠杆。特征选择方法（FSM）独立于某种ML算法 - 所谓的过滤方法 - 已毫无意义地建议，但研究人员和定量建模的指导很少，以选择典型ML问题的适当方法。本次审查在特征选择基准上综合了大量文献，并评估了58种方法在广泛使用的R环境中的性能。对于具体的指导，我们考虑了四种典型的数据集方案，这些情况挑战ML模型（嘈杂，冗余，不平衡数据和具有比观察特征更多的案例）。绘制早期基准的经验，该基准测试较少的FSMS，我们根据四个标准进行比较方法的性能（预测性能，所选的相关功能数，功能集和运行时的稳定性）。我们发现依赖于随机森林方法的方法，双输入对称相关滤波器（浪费）和联合杂质滤波器（Jim）是给定的数据集方案的良好性候选方法。

痴呆症是一种神经精神脑障碍，通常会在一个或多个脑细胞停止部分或根本停止工作时发生。在疾病的早期阶段诊断这种疾病是从不良后果中挽救生命并为他们提供更好的医疗保健的至关重要的任务。事实证明，机器学习方法在预测疾病早期痴呆症方面是准确的。痴呆的预测在很大程度上取决于通常从归一化的全脑体积（NWBV）和地图集缩放系数（ASF）收集的收集数据类型，这些数据通常测量并从磁共振成像（MRIS）中进行校正。年龄和性别等其他生物学特征也可以帮助诊断痴呆症。尽管许多研究使用机器学习来预测痴呆症，但我们无法就这些方法的稳定性得出结论，而这些方法在不同的实验条件下更准确。因此，本文研究了有关痴呆预测的机器学习算法的性能的结论稳定性。为此，使用7种机器学习算法和两种功能还原算法，即信息增益（IG）和主成分分析（PCA）进行大量实验。为了检查这些算法的稳定性，IG的特征选择阈值从20％更改为100％，PCA尺寸从2到8。这导致了7x9 + 7x7 = 112实验。在每个实验中，都记录了各种分类评估数据。获得的结果表明，在七种算法中，支持向量机和天真的贝叶斯是最稳定的算法，同时更改选择阈值。同样，发现使用IG似乎比使用PCA预测痴呆症更有效。

资源受限的分类任务在实际应用中很常见，例如为疾病诊断分配测试，填补有限数量的职位时雇用决策以及在有限检查预算下制造环境中的缺陷检测。典型的分类算法将学习过程和资源约束视为两个单独的顺序任务。在这里，我们设计了一种自适应学习方法，该方法通过迭代微调错误分类成本来考虑资源限制和共同学习。通过使用公开可用数据集的结构化实验研究，我们评估了采用建议方法的决策树分类器。自适应学习方法的表现要比替代方法要好得多，尤其是对于困难的分类问题，在这种问题上，普通方法的表现可能不令人满意。我们将适应性学习方法设想为处理资源受限分类问题的技术曲目的重要补充。

在不完整的数据集中对样本进行分类是机器学习从业人员的普遍目的，但并非平凡。在大多数现实世界数据集中发现缺失的数据，这些缺失值通常是使用已建立的方法估算的，然后进行分类现在完成，估算的样本。然后，机器学习研究人员的重点是优化下游分类性能。在这项研究中，我们强调必须考虑插补的质量。我们展示了如何评估质量的常用措施有缺陷，并提出了一类新的差异评分，这些分数着重于该方法重新创建数据的整体分布的程度。总而言之，我们强调了使用不良数据训练的分类器模型的可解释性损害。

机器学习渗透到许多行业，这为公司带来了新的利益来源。然而，在人寿保险行业中，机器学习在实践中并未被广泛使用，因为在过去几年中，统计模型表明了它们的风险评估效率。因此，保险公司可能面临评估人工智能价值的困难。随着时间的流逝，专注于人寿保险行业的修改突出了将机器学习用于保险公司的利益以及通过释放数据价值带来的利益。本文回顾了传统的生存建模方法论，并通过机器学习技术扩展了它们。它指出了与常规机器学习模型的差异，并强调了特定实现在与机器学习模型家族中面对审查数据的重要性。在本文的补充中，已经开发了Python库。已经调整了不同的开源机器学习算法，以适应人寿保险数据的特殊性，即检查和截断。此类模型可以轻松地从该SCOR库中应用，以准确地模拟人寿保险风险。

无论是在功能选择的领域还是可解释的AI领域，都有基于其重要性的“排名”功能的愿望。然后可以将这种功能重要的排名用于：（1）减少数据集大小或（2）解释机器学习模型。但是，在文献中，这种特征排名没有以系统的，一致的方式评估。许多论文都有不同的方式来争论哪些具有重要性排名最佳的特征。本文通过提出一种新的评估方法来填补这一空白。通过使用合成数据集，可以事先知道特征重要性得分，从而可以进行更系统的评估。为了促进使用新方法的大规模实验，在Python建造了一个名为FSEVAL的基准测定框架。该框架允许并行运行实验，并在HPC系统上的计算机上分布。通过与名为“权重和偏见”的在线平台集成，可以在实时仪表板上进行交互探索图表。该软件作为开源软件发布，并在PYPI平台上以包裹发行。该研究结束时，探索了一个这样的大规模实验，以在许多方面找到参与算法的优势和劣势。