Synthetic control methods often rely on matching pre-treatment characteristics (called predictors) of the treated unit. The choice of predictors and how they are weighted plays a key role in the performance and interpretability of synthetic control estimators. This paper proposes the use of a sparse synthetic control procedure that penalizes the number of predictors used in generating the counterfactual to select the most important predictors. We derive, in a linear factor model framework, a new model selection consistency result and show that the penalized procedure has a faster mean squared error convergence rate. Through a simulation study, we then show that the sparse synthetic control achieves lower bias and has better post-treatment performance than the un-penalized synthetic control. Finally, we apply the method to revisit the study of the passage of Proposition 99 in California in an augmented setting with a large number of predictors available.

In the new era of personalization, learning the heterogeneous treatment effect (HTE) becomes an inevitable trend with numerous applications. Yet, most existing HTE estimation methods focus on independently and identically distributed observations and cannot handle the non-stationarity and temporal dependency in the common panel data setting. The treatment evaluators developed for panel data, on the other hand, typically ignore the individualized information. To fill the gap, in this paper, we initialize the study of HTE estimation in panel data. Under different assumptions for HTE identifiability, we propose the corresponding heterogeneous one-side and two-side synthetic learner, namely H1SL and H2SL, by leveraging the state-of-the-art HTE estimator for non-panel data and generalizing the synthetic control method that allows flexible data generating process. We establish the convergence rates of the proposed estimators. The superior performance of the proposed methods over existing ones is demonstrated by extensive numerical studies.

了解特定待遇或政策与许多感兴趣领域有关的影响，从政治经济学，营销到医疗保健。在本文中，我们开发了一种非参数算法，用于在合成控制的背景下检测随着时间的流逝的治疗作用。该方法基于许多算法的反事实预测，而不必假设该算法正确捕获模型。我们介绍了一种推论程序来检测治疗效果，并表明测试程序对于固定，β混合过程渐近有效，而无需对所考虑的一组基础算法施加任何限制。我们讨论了平均治疗效果估计的一致性保证，并为提出的方法提供了遗憾的界限。算法类别可能包括随机森林，套索或任何其他机器学习估计器。数值研究和应用说明了该方法的优势。

最佳定价，即确定最大限度地提高给定产品的利润或收入的价格水平，是零售业的重要任务。要选择这样的数量，请先估计产品需求的价格弹性。由于混淆效果和价格内限性，回归方法通常无法恢复这些弹性。因此，通常需要随机实验。然而，例如，弹性可以是高度异构的，这取决于商店的位置。随着随机化经常发生在市级，标准差异差异方法也可能失败。可能的解决方案是基于根据从人工对照构成的治疗方法测量处理对单个（或仅几个）处理单元的影响的方法。例如，对于治疗组中的每个城市，可以从未处理的位置构成反事实。在本文中，我们应用了一种新的高维统计方法，以衡量价格变化对巴西主要零售商的日常销售的影响。所提出的方法结合了主成分（因子）和稀疏回归，导致一种称为因子调整的正规化方法的方法（\ TextTt {FarmTraTeat}）。数据包括每日五种不同产品的日常销售和价格，超过400多名市。审议的产品属于\ emph {甜蜜和糖果}类别和实验已经在2016年和2017年进行。我们的结果证实了高度异质性的假设，从而产生了与独特的市政当局的不同定价策略。

我们研究了具有预处理结果数据的实验研究的最佳设计。估计平均处理效果是治疗和控制单元的加权平均结果之间的差异。许多常用的方法符合该配方，包括差分估计器和各种合成控制技术。我们提出了几种方法，用于结合重量选择一组处理的单位。观察问题的NP硬度，我们介绍了混合整数编程配方，可选择处理和控制集和单位权重。我们证明，这些提出的方法导致定性不同的实验单元进行治疗。我们根据美国劳动统计局的公开数据使用模拟，这些数据在与随机试验等简单和常用的替代品相比时，表现出平均平方误差和统计功率的改进。

在本文中，我们研究了在一组单位上进行的设计实验的问题，例如在线市场中的用户或用户组，以多个时间段，例如数周或数月。这些实验特别有助于研究对当前和未来结果具有因果影响的治疗（瞬时和滞后的影响）。设计问题涉及在实验之前或期间选择每个单元的治疗时间，以便最精确地估计瞬间和滞后的效果，实验后。这种治疗决策的优化可以通过降低其样本尺寸要求，直接最小化实验的机会成本。优化是我们提供近最优解的NP-Hard整数程序，当时在开始时进行设计决策（固定样本大小设计）。接下来，我们研究允许在实验期间进行适应性决策的顺序实验，并且还可能早期停止实验，进一步降低其成本。然而，这些实验的顺序性质使设计阶段和估计阶段复杂化。我们提出了一种新的算法，PGAE，通过自适应地制造治疗决策，估算治疗效果和绘制有效的实验后推理来解决这些挑战。 PGAE将来自贝叶斯统计，动态编程和样品分裂的思想结合起来。使用来自多个域的真实数据集的合成实验，我们证明了与基准相比，我们的固定样本尺寸和顺序实验的提出解决方案将实验的机会成本降低了50％和70％。

The optimal design of experiments typically involves solving an NP-hard combinatorial optimization problem. In this paper, we aim to develop a globally convergent and practically efficient optimization algorithm. Specifically, we consider a setting where the pre-treatment outcome data is available and the synthetic control estimator is invoked. The average treatment effect is estimated via the difference between the weighted average outcomes of the treated and control units, where the weights are learned from the observed data. {Under this setting, we surprisingly observed that the optimal experimental design problem could be reduced to a so-called \textit{phase synchronization} problem.} We solve this problem via a normalized variant of the generalized power method with spectral initialization. On the theoretical side, we establish the first global optimality guarantee for experiment design when pre-treatment data is sampled from certain data-generating processes. Empirically, we conduct extensive experiments to demonstrate the effectiveness of our method on both the US Bureau of Labor Statistics and the Abadie-Diemond-Hainmueller California Smoking Data. In terms of the root mean square error, our algorithm surpasses the random design by a large margin.

使用面板数据进行因果推断是社会科学研究的核心挑战。预测方法的进步可以通过更准确地预测未发生治疗的治疗单元的反事实演变来促进这项任务。在本文中，我们借鉴了新开发的时间序列预测（N-Beats算法）的深度神经体系结构。我们通过合并控制单元的领先值来预测处理后的处理单元的“合成”未经处理的版本，从传统的时间序列应用程序中调整了此方法。我们将从此方法得出的估计量称为合成器，发现它在一系列设置中的传统双向固定效果和合成控制方法显着优于传统的双向固定效果和合成控制方法。我们还发现，相对于最新的面板估计方法，例如矩阵完成和差异中的合成差异，合成器具有可比性或更准确的性能。我们的结果强调了如何利用预测文献的进步来改善面板设置的因果推断。

加权方法是偏离因果效应的估计的常见工具。虽然越来越多的看似不同的方法，但其中许多可以折叠成一个统一的制度：因果最佳运输。这种新方法通过最小化治疗和对照组之间的最佳运输距离，或者更一般地，在源和目标群体之间直接针对分布平衡。我们的方法是半富集的有效和无模型，但也可以包含研究人员希望平衡的协变量的时刻或任何其他重要的功能。我们发现因果最佳运输优于竞争对手的方法，当错过倾向分数和结果模型时，表明它是一种稳健的替代普通加权方法。最后，我们证明了我们在外部对照研究中的效用检查米索前列醇与催产素治疗后骨髓出血的影响。

我们讨论了具有未知IV有效性的线性仪器变量（IV）模型中识别的基本问题。我们重新审视了流行的多数和多元化规则，并表明通常没有识别条件是“且仅在总体上”。假设“最稀少的规则”，该规则等同于多数规则，但在计算算法中变得运作，我们研究并证明了基于两步选择的其他IV估计器的非convex惩罚方法的优势，就两步选择而言选择一致性和单独弱IV的适应性。此外，我们提出了一种与识别条件保持一致的替代较低的惩罚，并同时提供甲骨文稀疏结构。与先前的文献相比，针对静脉强度较弱的估计仪得出了理想的理论特性。使用模拟证明了有限样本特性，并且选择和估计方法应用于有关贸易对经济增长的影响的经验研究。

在本文中，我们提出了一种非参数估计的方法，并推断了一般样本选择模型中因果效应参数的异质界限，初始治疗可能会影响干预后结果是否观察到。可观察到的协变量可能会混淆治疗选择，而观察结果和不可观察的结果可能会混淆。该方法提供条件效应界限作为策略相关的预处理变量的功能。它允许对身份不明的条件效应曲线进行有效的统计推断。我们使用灵活的半参数脱偏机学习方法，该方法可以适应柔性功能形式和治疗，选择和结果过程之间的高维混杂变量。还提供了易于验证的高级条件，以进行估计和错误指定的鲁棒推理保证。

我们在具有固定设计的高维错误设置中分析主组件回归（PCR）。在适当的条件下，我们表明PCR始终以最小$ \ ell_2 $ -norm识别唯一模型，并且是最小的最佳模型。这些结果使我们能够建立非质子化的样本外预测，以确保提高最著名的速率。在我们的分析中，我们在样本外协变量之间引入了天然的线性代数条件，这使我们能够避免分布假设。我们的模拟说明了即使在协变量转移的情况下，这种条件对于概括的重要性。作为副产品，我们的结果还导致了合成控制文献的新结果，这是政策评估的主要方法。特别是，我们的minimax结果表明，在众多变体中，基于PCR的方法具有吸引力。据我们所知，我们对固定设计设置的预测保证在高维错误和合成控制文献中都是难以捉摸的。

Statistical risk assessments inform consequential decisions such as pretrial release in criminal justice, and loan approvals in consumer finance. Such risk assessments make counterfactual predictions, predicting the likelihood of an outcome under a proposed decision (e.g., what would happen if we approved this loan?). A central challenge, however, is that there may have been unmeasured confounders that jointly affected past decisions and outcomes in the historical data. This paper proposes a tractable mean outcome sensitivity model that bounds the extent to which unmeasured confounders could affect outcomes on average. The mean outcome sensitivity model partially identifies the conditional likelihood of the outcome under the proposed decision, popular predictive performance metrics (e.g., accuracy, calibration, TPR, FPR), and commonly-used predictive disparities. We derive their sharp identified sets, and we then solve three tasks that are essential to deploying statistical risk assessments in high-stakes settings. First, we propose a doubly-robust learning procedure for the bounds on the conditional likelihood of the outcome under the proposed decision. Second, we translate our estimated bounds on the conditional likelihood of the outcome under the proposed decision into a robust, plug-in decision-making policy. Third, we develop doubly-robust estimators of the bounds on the predictive performance of an existing risk assessment.

特征选择是机器学习文献中的一个广泛研究的技术，主要目的是识别提供最高预测力的功能的子集。然而，在因果推断中，我们的目标是识别与治疗变量和结果相关联的一组变量（即，混杂器）。在控制混淆变量的同时，有助于我们实现对因果效应的无偏见估计，但最近的研究表明，控制纯粹结果预测因子以及混淆可以降低估计的方差。在本文中，我们提出了一种特异性设计用于因果推理的结果自适应弹性 - 网（OAENET）方法，以选择混淆和结果预测因子，以便包含在倾向得分模型或匹配机制中。 OAENET通过现有方法提供了两个主要优点：它可以在相关数据上表现出，可以应用于任何匹配方法和任何估计。此外，与最先进的方法相比，OAENET正在计算上有效。

The intersection of causal inference and machine learning for decision-making is rapidly expanding, but the default decision criterion remains an \textit{average} of individual causal outcomes across a population. In practice, various operational restrictions ensure that a decision-maker's utility is not realized as an \textit{average} but rather as an \textit{output} of a downstream decision-making problem (such as matching, assignment, network flow, minimizing predictive risk). In this work, we develop a new framework for off-policy evaluation with \textit{policy-dependent} linear optimization responses: causal outcomes introduce stochasticity in objective function coefficients. Under this framework, a decision-maker's utility depends on the policy-dependent optimization, which introduces a fundamental challenge of \textit{optimization} bias even for the case of policy evaluation. We construct unbiased estimators for the policy-dependent estimand by a perturbation method, and discuss asymptotic variance properties for a set of adjusted plug-in estimators. Lastly, attaining unbiased policy evaluation allows for policy optimization: we provide a general algorithm for optimizing causal interventions. We corroborate our theoretical results with numerical simulations.

协调因子的匹配是估计观察研究中因果效应的既定框架。这些设置中的主要挑战源于问题的经常高维结构。已经引入了许多方法来处理这一挑战，在计算和统计性能和解释性中具有不同的优点和缺点。此外，该方法的重点是在二元治疗场景中匹配两个样本，但是一项专用方法可以在多种治疗中最佳地平衡样本的方法。本文介绍了基于熵的自然最佳匹配方法，该方法具有许多有用的属性来解决这些挑战。它提供了可解释的匹配个体的重量，该匹配的个体可以通过经典迭代比例配合过程有效地实现参数速率的参数速率，并且甚至可以同时匹配几个治疗臂。它还具有优异的有限样品性质。

本文提出了一种估计溢出效应存在福利最大化政策的实验设计。我考虑一个设置在其中组织成一个有限数量的大型群集，并在每个群集中以不观察到的方式交互。作为第一种贡献，我介绍了一个单波实验，以估计治疗概率的变化的边际效应，以考虑到溢出率，并测试政策最优性。该设计在群集中独立地随机化处理，并诱导局部扰动到对簇成对的治疗概率。使用估计的边际效应，我构建了对定期治疗分配规则最大化福利的实际测试，并且我表征了其渐近性质。该想法是，研究人员应报告对福利最大化政策的边际效应和测试的估计：边际效应表明福利改善的方向，并提供了关于是否值得进行额外实验以估计估计福利改善的证据治疗分配。作为第二种贡献，我设计了多波实验来估计治疗分配规则并最大化福利。我获得了小型样本保证，最大可获得的福利和估计政策（遗憾）评估的福利之间的差异。这种保证的必要性是，遗憾在迭代和集群的数量中线性会聚到零。校准在信息扩散和现金转移方案上校准的模拟表明，该方法导致了显着的福利改进。

We propose a new method to estimate causal effects from nonexperimental data. Each pair of sample units is first associated with a stochastic 'treatment' - differences in factors between units - and an effect - a resultant outcome difference. It is then proposed that all such pairs can be combined to provide more accurate estimates of causal effects in observational data, provided a statistical model connecting combinatorial properties of treatments to the accuracy and unbiasedness of their effects. The article introduces one such model and a Bayesian approach to combine the $O(n^2)$ pairwise observations typically available in nonexperimnetal data. This also leads to an interpretation of nonexperimental datasets as incomplete, or noisy, versions of ideal factorial experimental designs. This approach to causal effect estimation has several advantages: (1) it expands the number of observations, converting thousands of individuals into millions of observational treatments; (2) starting with treatments closest to the experimental ideal, it identifies noncausal variables that can be ignored in the future, making estimation easier in each subsequent iteration while departing minimally from experiment-like conditions; (3) it recovers individual causal effects in heterogeneous populations. We evaluate the method in simulations and the National Supported Work (NSW) program, an intensively studied program whose effects are known from randomized field experiments. We demonstrate that the proposed approach recovers causal effects in common NSW samples, as well as in arbitrary subpopulations and an order-of-magnitude larger supersample with the entire national program data, outperforming Statistical, Econometrics and Machine Learning estimators in all cases...

In various fields of data science, researchers are often interested in estimating the ratio of conditional expectation functions (CEFR). Specifically in causal inference problems, it is sometimes natural to consider ratio-based treatment effects, such as odds ratios and hazard ratios, and even difference-based treatment effects are identified as CEFR in some empirically relevant settings. This chapter develops the general framework for estimation and inference on CEFR, which allows the use of flexible machine learning for infinite-dimensional nuisance parameters. In the first stage of the framework, the orthogonal signals are constructed using debiased machine learning techniques to mitigate the negative impacts of the regularization bias in the nuisance estimates on the target estimates. The signals are then combined with a novel series estimator tailored for CEFR. We derive the pointwise and uniform asymptotic results for estimation and inference on CEFR, including the validity of the Gaussian bootstrap, and provide low-level sufficient conditions to apply the proposed framework to some specific examples. We demonstrate the finite-sample performance of the series estimator constructed under the proposed framework by numerical simulations. Finally, we apply the proposed method to estimate the causal effect of the 401(k) program on household assets.

现代纵向研究在许多时间点收集特征数据，通常是相同的样本大小顺序。这些研究通常受到{辍学}和积极违规的影响。我们通过概括近期增量干预的效果（转换倾向分数而不是设置治疗价值）来解决这些问题，以适应多种结果和主题辍学。当条件忽略（不需要治疗阳性）时，我们给出了识别表达式的增量干预效果，并导出估计这些效果的非参数效率。然后我们提出了高效的非参数估计器，表明它们以快速参数速率收敛并产生均匀的推理保证，即使在较慢的速率下灵活估计滋扰函数。我们还研究了新型无限时间范围设置中的更传统的确定性效果的增量干预效应的方差比，其中时间点的数量可以随着样本大小而生长，并显示增量干预效果在统计精度下产生近乎指数的收益这个设置。最后，我们通过模拟得出结论，并在研究低剂量阿司匹林对妊娠结果的研究中进行了方法。