With rapid development of blockchain technology as well as integration of various application areas, performance evaluation, performance optimization, and dynamic decision in blockchain systems are playing an increasingly important role in developing new blockchain technology. This paper provides a recent systematic overview of this class of research, and especially, developing mathematical modeling and basic theory of blockchain systems. Important examples include (a) performance evaluation: Markov processes, queuing theory, Markov reward processes, random walks, fluid and diffusion approximations, and martingale theory; (b) performance optimization: Linear programming, nonlinear programming, integer programming, and multi-objective programming; (c) optimal control and dynamic decision: Markov decision processes, and stochastic optimal control; and (d) artificial intelligence: Machine learning, deep reinforcement learning, and federated learning. So far, a little research has focused on these research lines. We believe that the basic theory with mathematical methods, algorithms and simulations of blockchain systems discussed in this paper will strongly support future development and continuous innovation of blockchain technology.

推荐系统已广泛应用于不同的应用领域，包括能量保存，电子商务，医疗保健，社交媒体等。此类应用需要分析和挖掘大量各种类型的用户数据，包括人口统计，偏好，社会互动等，以便开发准确和精确的推荐系统。此类数据集通常包括敏感信息，但大多数推荐系统专注于模型的准确性和忽略与安全性和用户隐私相关的问题。尽管使用不同的风险减少技术克服这些问题，但它们都没有完全成功，确保了对用户的私人信息的密码安全和保护。为了弥合这一差距，区块链技术作为推动推荐系统中的安全和隐私保存的有希望的策略，不仅是因为其安全性和隐私性突出特征，而且由于其恢复力，适应性，容错和信任特性。本文介绍了涵盖挑战，开放问题和解决方案的基于区块链的推荐系统的整体综述。因此，引入了精心设计的分类，以描述安全和隐私挑战，概述现有框架并在使用区块链之前讨论其应用程序和利益，以指示未来的研究机会。

Reinforcement learning (RL) is one of the most important branches of AI. Due to its capacity for self-adaption and decision-making in dynamic environments, reinforcement learning has been widely applied in multiple areas, such as healthcare, data markets, autonomous driving, and robotics. However, some of these applications and systems have been shown to be vulnerable to security or privacy attacks, resulting in unreliable or unstable services. A large number of studies have focused on these security and privacy problems in reinforcement learning. However, few surveys have provided a systematic review and comparison of existing problems and state-of-the-art solutions to keep up with the pace of emerging threats. Accordingly, we herein present such a comprehensive review to explain and summarize the challenges associated with security and privacy in reinforcement learning from a new perspective, namely that of the Markov Decision Process (MDP). In this survey, we first introduce the key concepts related to this area. Next, we cover the security and privacy issues linked to the state, action, environment, and reward function of the MDP process, respectively. We further highlight the special characteristics of security and privacy methodologies related to reinforcement learning. Finally, we discuss the possible future research directions within this area.

The advent of Federated Learning (FL) has ignited a new paradigm for parallel and confidential decentralized Machine Learning (ML) with the potential of utilizing the computational power of a vast number of IoT, mobile and edge devices without data leaving the respective device, ensuring privacy by design. Yet, in order to scale this new paradigm beyond small groups of already entrusted entities towards mass adoption, the Federated Learning Framework (FLF) has to become (i) truly decentralized and (ii) participants have to be incentivized. This is the first systematic literature review analyzing holistic FLFs in the domain of both, decentralized and incentivized federated learning. 422 publications were retrieved, by querying 12 major scientific databases. Finally, 40 articles remained after a systematic review and filtering process for in-depth examination. Although having massive potential to direct the future of a more distributed and secure AI, none of the analyzed FLF is production-ready. The approaches vary heavily in terms of use-cases, system design, solved issues and thoroughness. We are the first to provide a systematic approach to classify and quantify differences between FLF, exposing limitations of current works and derive future directions for research in this novel domain.

With the increasing growth of information through smart devices, increasing the quality level of human life requires various computational paradigms presentation including the Internet of Things, fog, and cloud. Between these three paradigms, the cloud computing paradigm as an emerging technology adds cloud layer services to the edge of the network so that resource allocation operations occur close to the end-user to reduce resource processing time and network traffic overhead. Hence, the resource allocation problem for its providers in terms of presenting a suitable platform, by using computational paradigms is considered a challenge. In general, resource allocation approaches are divided into two methods, including auction-based methods(goal, increase profits for service providers-increase user satisfaction and usability) and optimization-based methods(energy, cost, network exploitation, Runtime, reduction of time delay). In this paper, according to the latest scientific achievements, a comprehensive literature study (CLS) on artificial intelligence methods based on resource allocation optimization without considering auction-based methods in various computing environments are provided such as cloud computing, Vehicular Fog Computing, wireless, IoT, vehicular networks, 5G networks, vehicular cloud architecture,machine-to-machine communication(M2M),Train-to-Train(T2T) communication network, Peer-to-Peer(P2P) network. Since deep learning methods based on artificial intelligence are used as the most important methods in resource allocation problems; Therefore, in this paper, resource allocation approaches based on deep learning are also used in the mentioned computational environments such as deep reinforcement learning, Q-learning technique, reinforcement learning, online learning, and also Classical learning methods such as Bayesian learning, Cummins clustering, Markov decision process.

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) swarms are considered as a promising technique for next-generation communication networks due to their flexibility, mobility, low cost, and the ability to collaboratively and autonomously provide services. Distributed learning (DL) enables UAV swarms to intelligently provide communication services, multi-directional remote surveillance, and target tracking. In this survey, we first introduce several popular DL algorithms such as federated learning (FL), multi-agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL), distributed inference, and split learning, and present a comprehensive overview of their applications for UAV swarms, such as trajectory design, power control, wireless resource allocation, user assignment, perception, and satellite communications. Then, we present several state-of-the-art applications of UAV swarms in wireless communication systems, such us reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS), virtual reality (VR), semantic communications, and discuss the problems and challenges that DL-enabled UAV swarms can solve in these applications. Finally, we describe open problems of using DL in UAV swarms and future research directions of DL enabled UAV swarms. In summary, this survey provides a comprehensive survey of various DL applications for UAV swarms in extensive scenarios.

In recent years, the exponential proliferation of smart devices with their intelligent applications poses severe challenges on conventional cellular networks. Such challenges can be potentially overcome by integrating communication, computing, caching, and control (i4C) technologies. In this survey, we first give a snapshot of different aspects of the i4C, comprising background, motivation, leading technological enablers, potential applications, and use cases. Next, we describe different models of communication, computing, caching, and control (4C) to lay the foundation of the integration approach. We review current state-of-the-art research efforts related to the i4C, focusing on recent trends of both conventional and artificial intelligence (AI)-based integration approaches. We also highlight the need for intelligence in resources integration. Then, we discuss integration of sensing and communication (ISAC) and classify the integration approaches into various classes. Finally, we propose open challenges and present future research directions for beyond 5G networks, such as 6G.

With the drive to create a decentralized digital economy, Web 3.0 has become a cornerstone of digital transformation, developed on the basis of computing-force networking, distributed data storage, and blockchain. With the rapid realization of quantum devices, Web 3.0 is being developed in parallel with the deployment of quantum cloud computing and quantum Internet. In this regard, quantum computing first disrupts the original cryptographic systems that protect data security while reshaping modern cryptography with the advantages of quantum computing and communication. Therefore, in this paper, we introduce a quantum blockchain-driven Web 3.0 framework that provides information-theoretic security for decentralized data transferring and payment transactions. First, we present the framework of quantum blockchain-driven Web 3.0 with future-proof security during the transmission of data and transaction information. Next, we discuss the potential applications and challenges of implementing quantum blockchain in Web 3.0. Finally, we describe a use case for quantum non-fungible tokens (NFTs) and propose a quantum deep learning-based optimal auction for NFT trading to maximize the achievable revenue for sufficient liquidity in Web 3.0. In this way, the proposed framework can achieve proven security and sustainability for the next-generation decentralized digital society.

通过参与大规模联合学习（FL）优化的设备的异构性质的激励，我们专注于由区块链（BC）技术赋予的异步服务器的FL解决方案。与主要采用的FL方法相比，假设同步操作，我们提倡一个异步方法，由此，模型聚合作为客户端提交本地更新。异步设置与具有异构客户端的实际大规模设置中的联合优化思路非常适合。因此，它可能导致通信开销和空闲时段的效率提高。为了评估启用了BC启用的FL的学习完成延迟，我们提供了基于批量服务队列理论的分析模型。此外，我们提供仿真结果以评估同步和异步机制的性能。涉及BC启用的流量的重要方面，例如网络大小，链路容量或用户要求，并分析并分析。随着我们的结果表明，同步设置导致比异步案例更高的预测精度。然而，异步联合优化在许多情况下提供了更低的延迟，从而在处理大数据集时成为一种吸引力的FL解决方案，严重的时序约束（例如，近实时应用）或高度不同的训练数据。

Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is transforming the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) by enhancing the trust of end-users in machines. As the number of connected devices keeps on growing, the Internet of Things (IoT) market needs to be trustworthy for the end-users. However, existing literature still lacks a systematic and comprehensive survey work on the use of XAI for IoT. To bridge this lacking, in this paper, we address the XAI frameworks with a focus on their characteristics and support for IoT. We illustrate the widely-used XAI services for IoT applications, such as security enhancement, Internet of Medical Things (IoMT), Industrial IoT (IIoT), and Internet of City Things (IoCT). We also suggest the implementation choice of XAI models over IoT systems in these applications with appropriate examples and summarize the key inferences for future works. Moreover, we present the cutting-edge development in edge XAI structures and the support of sixth-generation (6G) communication services for IoT applications, along with key inferences. In a nutshell, this paper constitutes the first holistic compilation on the development of XAI-based frameworks tailored for the demands of future IoT use cases.

互联网连接系统的指数增长产生了许多挑战，例如频谱短缺问题，需要有效的频谱共享（SS）解决方案。复杂和动态的SS系统可以接触不同的潜在安全性和隐私问题，需要保护机制是自适应，可靠和可扩展的。基于机器学习（ML）的方法经常提议解决这些问题。在本文中，我们对最近的基于ML的SS方法，最关键的安全问题和相应的防御机制提供了全面的调查。特别是，我们详细说明了用于提高SS通信系统的性能的最先进的方法，包括基于ML基于ML的基于的数据库辅助SS网络，ML基于基于的数据库辅助SS网络，包括基于ML的数据库辅助的SS网络，基于ML的LTE-U网络，基于ML的环境反向散射网络和其他基于ML的SS解决方案。我们还从物理层和基于ML算法的相应防御策略的安全问题，包括主要用户仿真（PUE）攻击，频谱感测数据伪造（SSDF）攻击，干扰攻击，窃听攻击和隐私问题。最后，还给出了对ML基于ML的开放挑战的广泛讨论。这种全面的审查旨在为探索新出现的ML的潜力提供越来越复杂的SS及其安全问题，提供基础和促进未来的研究。

未来的互联网涉及几种新兴技术，例如5G和5G网络，车辆网络，无人机（UAV）网络和物联网（IOT）。此外，未来的互联网变得异质并分散了许多相关网络实体。每个实体可能需要做出本地决定，以在动态和不确定的网络环境下改善网络性能。最近使用标准学习算法，例如单药强化学习（RL）或深入强化学习（DRL），以使每个网络实体作为代理人通过与未知环境进行互动来自适应地学习最佳决策策略。但是，这种算法未能对网络实体之间的合作或竞争进行建模，而只是将其他实体视为可能导致非平稳性问题的环境的一部分。多机构增强学习（MARL）允许每个网络实体不仅观察环境，还可以观察其他实体的政策来学习其最佳政策。结果，MAL可以显着提高网络实体的学习效率，并且最近已用于解决新兴网络中的各种问题。在本文中，我们因此回顾了MAL在新兴网络中的应用。特别是，我们提供了MARL的教程，以及对MARL在下一代互联网中的应用进行全面调查。特别是，我们首先介绍单代机Agent RL和MARL。然后，我们回顾了MAL在未来互联网中解决新兴问题的许多应用程序。这些问题包括网络访问，传输电源控制，计算卸载，内容缓存，数据包路由，无人机网络的轨迹设计以及网络安全问题。

使用人工智能（AI）赋予无线网络中数据量的前所未有的数据量激增，为提供无处不在的数据驱动智能服务而开辟了新的视野。通过集中收集数据集和培训模型来实现传统的云彩中心学习（ML）基础的服务。然而，这种传统的训练技术包括两个挑战：（i）由于数据通信增加而导致的高通信和能源成本，（ii）通过允许不受信任的各方利用这些信息来威胁数据隐私。最近，鉴于这些限制，一种新兴的新兴技术，包括联合学习（FL），以使ML带到无线网络的边缘。通过以分布式方式培训全局模型，可以通过FL Server策划的全局模型来提取数据孤岛的好处。 FL利用分散的数据集和参与客户的计算资源，在不影响数据隐私的情况下开发广义ML模型。在本文中，我们介绍了对FL的基本面和能够实现技术的全面调查。此外，提出了一个广泛的研究，详细说明了无线网络中的流体的各种应用，并突出了他们的挑战和局限性。进一步探索了FL的疗效，其新兴的前瞻性超出了第五代（B5G）和第六代（6G）通信系统。本调查的目的是在关键的无线技术中概述了流动的技术，这些技术将作为建立对该主题的坚定了解的基础。最后，我们向未来的研究方向提供前进的道路。

随着物联网（IoT）和5G/6G无线通信的进步，近年来，移动计算的范式已经显着发展，从集中式移动云计算到分布式雾计算和移动边缘计算（MEC）。 MEC将计算密集型任务推向网络的边缘，并将资源尽可能接近端点，以解决有关存储空间，资源优化，计算性能和效率方面的移动设备缺点。与云计算相比，作为分布式和更紧密的基础架构，MEC与其他新兴技术的收敛性，包括元元，6G无线通信，人工智能（AI）和区块链，也解决了网络资源分配的问题，更多的网络负载，更多的网络负载，以及延迟要求。因此，本文研究了用于满足现代应用程序严格要求的计算范例。提供了MEC在移动增强现实（MAR）中的应用程序方案。此外，这项调查提出了基于MEC的元元的动机，并将MEC的应用介绍给了元元。特别强调上述一组技术融合，例如6G具有MEC范式，通过区块链加强MEC等。

联邦学习（FL）变得流行，并在训练大型机器学习（ML）模型的情况下表现出很大的潜力，而不会使所有者的原始数据曝光。在FL中，数据所有者可以根据其本地数据培训ML模型，并且仅将模型更新发送到模型更新，而不是原始数据到模型所有者进行聚合。为了提高模型准确性和培训完成时间的学习绩效，招募足够的参与者至关重要。同时，数据所有者是理性的，可能不愿意由于资源消耗而参与协作学习过程。为了解决这些问题，最近有各种作品旨在激励数据业主贡献其资源。在本文中，我们为文献中提出的经济和游戏理论方法提供了全面的审查，以设计刺激数据业主参加流程培训过程的各种计划。特别是，我们首先在激励机制设计中常用的佛罗里达州的基础和背景，经济理论。然后，我们审查博弈理论和经济方法应用于FL的激励机制的应用。最后，我们突出了一些开放的问题和未来关于FL激励机制设计的研究方向。

数字化和远程连接扩大了攻击面，使网络系统更脆弱。由于攻击者变得越来越复杂和资源丰富，仅仅依赖传统网络保护，如入侵检测，防火墙和加密，不足以保护网络系统。网络弹性提供了一种新的安全范式，可以使用弹性机制来补充保护不足。一种网络弹性机制（CRM）适应了已知的或零日威胁和实际威胁和不确定性，并对他们进行战略性地响应，以便在成功攻击时保持网络系统的关键功能。反馈架构在启用CRM的在线感应，推理和致动过程中发挥关键作用。强化学习（RL）是一个重要的工具，对网络弹性的反馈架构构成。它允许CRM提供有限或没有事先知识和攻击者的有限攻击的顺序响应。在这项工作中，我们审查了Cyber​​恢复力的RL的文献，并讨论了对三种主要类型的漏洞，即姿势有关，与信息相关的脆弱性的网络恢复力。我们介绍了三个CRM的应用领域：移动目标防御，防守网络欺骗和辅助人类安全技术。 RL算法也有漏洞。我们解释了RL的三个漏洞和目前的攻击模型，其中攻击者针对环境与代理商之间交换的信息：奖励，国家观察和行动命令。我们展示攻击者可以通过最低攻击努力来欺骗RL代理商学习邪恶的政策。最后，我们讨论了RL为基于RL的CRM的网络安全和恢复力和新兴应用的未来挑战。

In this tutorial paper, we look into the evolution and prospect of network architecture and propose a novel conceptual architecture for the 6th generation (6G) networks. The proposed architecture has two key elements, i.e., holistic network virtualization and pervasive artificial intelligence (AI). The holistic network virtualization consists of network slicing and digital twin, from the aspects of service provision and service demand, respectively, to incorporate service-centric and user-centric networking. The pervasive network intelligence integrates AI into future networks from the perspectives of networking for AI and AI for networking, respectively. Building on holistic network virtualization and pervasive network intelligence, the proposed architecture can facilitate three types of interplay, i.e., the interplay between digital twin and network slicing paradigms, between model-driven and data-driven methods for network management, and between virtualization and AI, to maximize the flexibility, scalability, adaptivity, and intelligence for 6G networks. We also identify challenges and open issues related to the proposed architecture. By providing our vision, we aim to inspire further discussions and developments on the potential architecture of 6G.

物联网的最新研究已被广泛应用于工业实践，促进了数据和连接设备的指数增长。此后，各方通过某些数据共享策略将访问数据驱动的AI模型。但是，当前大多数培训程序都依赖于集中式数据收集策略和单个计算服务器。但是，这样的集中计划可能会导致许多问题。存储在集中数据库中的客户数据可能会被篡改，因此数据的出处和真实性是不能合理的。一旦出现上述安全问题，训练有素的AI模型的可信度将是值得怀疑的，甚至在测试阶段也可能产生不利的结果。最近，已经探索了行业4.0和Web 3.0的两种核心技术区块链和AI，以促进分散的AI培训策略。为了实现这一目的，我们提出了一种称为Appflchain的新系统体系结构，即基于Hyperledger织物的区块链和联合学习范式的集成体系结构。我们提出的新系统允许不同的各方共同培训AI模型，其客户或利益相关者由基于联盟区块链的网络连接。由于用户不需要向服务器共享敏感的个人信息，因此我们的新系统可以保持高度的安全性和隐私性。为了进行数值评估，我们模拟了现实世界的场景，以说明Appflchain的整个操作过程。仿真结果表明，利用联盟区块链和联邦学习的特征，Appflchain可以证明有利的特性，包括不可耐受性，可追溯性，隐私保护和可靠的决策。

联邦学习一直是一个热门的研究主题，使不同组织的机器学习模型的协作培训在隐私限制下。随着研究人员试图支持更多具有不同隐私方法的机器学习模型，需要开发系统和基础设施，以便于开发各种联合学习算法。类似于Pytorch和Tensorflow等深度学习系统，可以增强深度学习的发展，联邦学习系统（FLSS）是等效的，并且面临各个方面的面临挑战，如有效性，效率和隐私。在本调查中，我们对联合学习系统进行了全面的审查。为实现流畅的流动和引导未来的研究，我们介绍了联合学习系统的定义并分析了系统组件。此外，我们根据六种不同方面提供联合学习系统的全面分类，包括数据分布，机器学习模型，隐私机制，通信架构，联合集市和联合的动机。分类可以帮助设计联合学习系统，如我们的案例研究所示。通过系统地总结现有联合学习系统，我们展示了设计因素，案例研究和未来的研究机会。

联合学习（FL）已成为工业物联网（IIOT）网络中数字双胞胎的必不可少的技术。但是，由于FL的主/奴隶结构，抵制主聚合器的单点失败以及恶意IIOT设备的攻击是非常具有挑战性的，同时保证了模型收敛速度和准确性。最近，区块链已进入FL系统，将范式转换为分散的方式，从而进一步提高了系统的安全性和学习可靠性。不幸的是，由于资源消耗庞大，交易量有限和高度沟通复杂性，区块链系统的传统共识机制和架构几乎无法处理大规模的FL任务并在IIT设备上运行。为了解决这些问题，本文提出了一个两层区块链驱动的FL系统，称为Chainfl，该系统将IIOT网络分为多个碎片，作为限制信息交换的标准层，并采用直接的无循环图（DAG） - 基于主链作为主链层，以实现平行和异步的横断面验证。此外，FL程序是定制的，以与区块链深入集成，并提出了修改的DAG共识机制来减轻由异常模型引起的失真。为了提供概念验证的实施和评估，部署了基于HyperLeDger面料和基于自发DAG的Mainchain的多个子链。广泛的实验结果表明，我们提出的链条系统以可接受和快速的训练效率（最高14％）和更强的鲁棒性（最多3次）优于现有的主要FL系统。