The computational complexity of the self-attention mechanism in Transformer models significantly limits their ability to generalize over long temporal durations. Memory-augmentation, or the explicit storing of past information in external memory for subsequent predictions, has become a constructive avenue for mitigating this limitation. We argue that memory-augmented Transformers can benefit substantially from considering insights from the memory literature in humans. We detail an approach for integrating evidence from the human memory system through the specification of cross-domain linking hypotheses. We then provide an empirical demonstration to evaluate the use of surprisal as a linking hypothesis, and further identify the limitations of this approach to inform future research.

关于人类阅读的研究长期以来一直记录在阅读行为表明特定于任务的效果，但是建立一个通用模型来预测人类在给定任务中将显示什么的通用模型。我们介绍了Neat，这是人类阅读中注意力分配的计算模型，基于人类阅读优化了一项任务中关注经济和成功之间的权衡。我们的模型是使用当代神经网络建模技术实施的，并对注意力分配的分配方式在不同任务中如何变化做出明确的测试预测。我们在一项针对阅读理解任务的两个版本的眼影研究中对此进行了测试，发现我们的模型成功说明了整个任务的阅读行为。因此，我们的工作提供了证据表明，任务效果可以建模为对任务需求的最佳适应。

People constantly use language to learn about the world. Computational linguists have capitalized on this fact to build large language models (LLMs) that acquire co-occurrence-based knowledge from language corpora. LLMs achieve impressive performance on many tasks, but the robustness of their world knowledge has been questioned. Here, we ask: do LLMs acquire generalized knowledge about real-world events? Using curated sets of minimal sentence pairs (n=1215), we tested whether LLMs are more likely to generate plausible event descriptions compared to their implausible counterparts. We found that LLMs systematically distinguish possible and impossible events (The teacher bought the laptop vs. The laptop bought the teacher) but fall short of human performance when distinguishing likely and unlikely events (The nanny tutored the boy vs. The boy tutored the nanny). In follow-up analyses, we show that (i) LLM scores are driven by both plausibility and surface-level sentence features, (ii) LLMs generalize well across syntactic sentence variants (active vs passive) but less well across semantic sentence variants (synonymous sentences), (iii) some, but not all LLM deviations from ground-truth labels align with crowdsourced human judgments, and (iv) explicit event plausibility information emerges in middle LLM layers and remains high thereafter. Overall, our analyses reveal a gap in LLMs' event knowledge, highlighting their limitations as generalized knowledge bases. We conclude by speculating that the differential performance on impossible vs. unlikely events is not a temporary setback but an inherent property of LLMs, reflecting a fundamental difference between linguistic knowledge and world knowledge in intelligent systems.

终身体验和学习知识导致对常见情况倾向于展开的情况的共同期望。这些知识使人们能够毫不费力地解释故事叙述并确定突出的事件。我们使用GPT-3研究自传式与想象故事中的事件叙事流程的差异，是迄今为止创建的最大神经语言模型之一。日记的故事是由人群撰写的关于最近经验丰富的活动或同一主题的想象事件。为了分析这些故事的事件的叙述流程，我们测量了句子*顺序*，它比较了与上述故事上下文的句子的概率。我们发现，想象的故事比自传故事更高的顺序，并且当自新召回时，自传故事的顺序高度较高。通过在故事句子中的事件的注释，我们发现故事类型包含类似的主要突出事件的比例，但自传故事是在事实上的小事中的密集。此外，与想象的故事相比，自传故事包含与第一人称，认知过程，时间，空间，数字，社交词和核心驱动器和需求相关的更多具体的单词和词汇。我们的调查结果强调了调查记忆和认知的机会，具有大规模的统计语言模型。

基于变压器的语言模型最近在许多自然语言任务中取得了显着的结果。但是，通常通过利用大量培训数据来实现排行榜的性能，并且很少通过将明确的语言知识编码为神经模型。这使许多人质疑语言学对现代自然语言处理的相关性。在本文中，我介绍了几个案例研究，以说明理论语言学和神经语言模型仍然相互关联。首先，语言模型通过提供一个客观的工具来测量语义距离，这对语言学家很有用，语义距离很难使用传统方法。另一方面，语言理论通过提供框架和数据源来探究我们的语言模型，以了解语言理解的特定方面，从而有助于语言建模研究。本论文贡献了三项研究，探讨了语言模型中语法 - 听觉界面的不同方面。在论文的第一部分中，我将语言模型应用于单词类灵活性的问题。我将Mbert作为语义距离测量的来源，我提供了有利于将单词类灵活性分析为方向过程的证据。在论文的第二部分中，我提出了一种方法来测量语言模型中间层的惊奇方法。我的实验表明，包含形态句法异常的句子触发了语言模型早期的惊喜，而不是语义和常识异常。最后，在论文的第三部分中，我适应了一些心理语言学研究，以表明语言模型包含了论证结构结构的知识。总而言之，我的论文在自然语言处理，语言理论和心理语言学之间建立了新的联系，以为语言模型的解释提供新的观点。

This work presents a detailed linguistic analysis into why larger Transformer-based pre-trained language models with more parameters and lower perplexity nonetheless yield surprisal estimates that are less predictive of human reading times. First, regression analyses show a strictly monotonic, positive log-linear relationship between perplexity and fit to reading times for the more recently released five GPT-Neo variants and eight OPT variants on two separate datasets, replicating earlier results limited to just GPT-2 (Oh et al., 2022). Subsequently, analysis of residual errors reveals a systematic deviation of the larger variants, such as underpredicting reading times of named entities and making compensatory overpredictions for reading times of function words such as modals and conjunctions. These results suggest that the propensity of larger Transformer-based models to 'memorize' sequences during training makes their surprisal estimates diverge from humanlike expectations, which warrants caution in using pre-trained language models to study human language processing.

科学家经常使用观察时间序列数据来研究从气候变化到民间冲突再到大脑活动的复杂自然过程。但是对这些数据的回归分析通常假定简单的动态。深度学习的最新进展使从语音理解到核物理学再到竞争性游戏的复杂过程模型的表现实现了令人震惊的改进。但是深度学习通常不用于科学分析。在这里，我们通过证明可以使用深度学习，不仅可以模仿，而且可以分析复杂的过程，在保留可解释性的同时提供灵活的功能近似。我们的方法 - 连续时间反向逆转回归神经网络（CDRNN） - 放宽标准简化的假设（例如，线性，平稳性和同质性）对于许多自然系统来说是不可信的，并且可能会严重影响数据的解释。我们评估CDRNNS对人类语言处理，这是一个具有复杂连续动态的领域。我们证明了行为和神经影像数据中预测可能性的显着改善，我们表明CDRNN可以在探索性分析中灵活发现新型模式，在确认分析中对可能的混杂性提供强有力的控制，并打开否则就可以使用这些问题来进行研究，这些问题否则就可以使用这些问题来进行研究，而这些问题否则就可以使用这些问题进行研究，而这些问题否则就可以使用这些问题进行研究。观察数据。

启动和抗精气可以通过错误驱动的学习来建模（Marsolek，2008），假设学习质量的影响对目标刺激的处理进行了学习。这意味着参与者在启动研究中不断学习，并预测他们在其他心理语言实验的每项试验中也在学习。这项研究调查了在词汇决策实验中是否可以检测到试验学习。我们使用了判别词典模型（DLM; Baayen等，2019），这是一种具有分布语义的含义表示的精神词典模型，该模型具有分布语义的含义表示，该模型以Widrow-hoff规则为增量学习模型。我们使用了英国词典项目（BLP； Keuleers等，2012）的数据，并对每个受试者单独进行试用基础进行了DLM模拟词汇决策实验。然后，使用源自DLM模拟作为预测因子的措施预测单词和非单词的反应时间。使用两个受试者的数据开发模型，并对所有其他受试者进行了测试。我们从两个模拟中为每个主题提取了措施（一个在试验之间进行了学习更新，一个没有），并将其用作两个GAM的输入。基于学习的模型比大多数受试者的非学习模型表现出更好的模型拟合度。我们的措施还提供了有关词汇处理的见解，并使我们能够通过线性混合模型探索个体差异。这证明了DLM对行为数据进行建模的潜力，并得出这样的结论：在心理语言实验中确实可以检测到试验到审判的学习。

The recent advent of large language models - large neural networks trained on a simple predictive objective over a massive corpus of natural language - has reinvigorated debate over whether human cognitive capacities might emerge in such generic models given sufficient training data. Of particular interest is the ability of these models to reason about novel problems zero-shot, without any direct training on those problems. In human cognition, this capacity is closely tied to an ability to reason by analogy. Here, we performed a direct comparison between human reasoners and a large language model (GPT-3) on a range of analogical tasks, including a novel text-based matrix reasoning task closely modeled on Raven's Progressive Matrices. We found that GPT-3 displayed a surprisingly strong capacity for abstract pattern induction, matching or even surpassing human capabilities in most settings. Our results indicate that large language models such as GPT-3 have acquired an emergent ability to find zero-shot solutions to a broad range of analogy problems.

Pragmatics is an essential part of communication, but it remains unclear what mechanisms underlie human pragmatic communication and whether NLP systems capture pragmatic language understanding. To investigate both these questions, we perform a fine-grained comparison of language models and humans on seven pragmatic phenomena, using zero-shot prompting on an expert-curated set of English materials. We ask whether models (1) select pragmatic interpretations of speaker utterances, (2) make similar error patterns as humans, and (3) use similar linguistic cues as humans to solve the tasks. We find that the largest models achieve high accuracy and match human error patterns: within incorrect responses, models favor the literal interpretation of an utterance over heuristic-based distractors. We also find evidence that models and humans are sensitive to similar linguistic cues. Our results suggest that even paradigmatic pragmatic phenomena may be solved without explicit representations of other agents' mental states, and that artificial models can be used to gain mechanistic insights into human pragmatic processing.

类比在人类常识推理中起着核心作用。识别类比诸如“眼睛是看到耳朵的声音”之类的类比的能力，有时也称为类比比例，塑造我们如何构建知识和理解语言。但是，令人惊讶的是，在语言模型时代，识别这种类比的任务尚未受到太多关注。在本文中，我们使用从教育环境以及更常用的数据集获得的基准分析了基于变压器的语言模型的功能。我们发现，现成的语言模型可以在一定程度上识别类比，但要与抽象和复杂的关系斗争，结果对模型架构和超参数高度敏感。总体而言，最佳结果是通过GPT-2和Roberta获得的，而使用BERT的配置无法超越单词嵌入模型。我们的结果为未来的工作提出了重要的问题，内容涉及如何以及在何种程度上培训的语言模型捕获有关抽象语义关系的知识。

Targeted syntactic evaluations of language models ask whether models show stable preferences for syntactically acceptable content over minimal-pair unacceptable inputs. Most targeted syntactic evaluation datasets ask models to make these judgements with just a single context-free sentence as input. This does not match language models' training regime, in which input sentences are always highly contextualized by the surrounding corpus. This mismatch raises an important question: how robust are models' syntactic judgements in different contexts? In this paper, we investigate the stability of language models' performance on targeted syntactic evaluations as we vary properties of the input context: the length of the context, the types of syntactic phenomena it contains, and whether or not there are violations of grammaticality. We find that model judgements are generally robust when placed in randomly sampled linguistic contexts. However, they are substantially unstable for contexts containing syntactic structures matching those in the critical test content. Among all tested models (GPT-2 and five variants of OPT), we significantly improve models' judgements by providing contexts with matching syntactic structures, and conversely significantly worsen them using unacceptable contexts with matching but violated syntactic structures. This effect is amplified by the length of the context, except for unrelated inputs. We show that these changes in model performance are not explainable by simple features matching the context and the test inputs, such as lexical overlap and dependency overlap. This sensitivity to highly specific syntactic features of the context can only be explained by the models' implicit in-context learning abilities.

为什么孩子们在别人面前学习一些话？了解儿童的个性变异性以及跨文字的可变性，可能是借助语言学习的学习过程的信息。我们使用来自儿童定向语音的大语料库的分布统计数据的词汇属性来研究基于物品的可变性。与以前的分析不同，我们预测了横截一性的词轨迹，阐明了在单个时间点可能没有明显的词汇发展的趋势。我们还表明，人们是否看一下单个年龄组或整个年龄，孩子是否知道一个词的最佳分配预测因子是其他已知单词的数量，其中该词往往会发生共同。关键词：收购年龄;词汇发展;词汇多样性;儿童定向演讲;

Building systems that achieve a deeper understanding of language is one of the central goals of natural language processing (NLP). Towards this goal, recent works have begun to train language models on narrative datasets which require extracting the most critical information by integrating across long contexts. However, it is still an open question whether these models are learning a deeper understanding of the text, or if the models are simply learning a heuristic to complete the task. This work investigates this further by turning to the one language processing system that truly understands complex language: the human brain. We show that training language models for deeper narrative understanding results in richer representations that have improved alignment to human brain activity. We further find that the improvements in brain alignment are larger for character names than for other discourse features, which indicates that these models are learning important narrative elements. Taken together, these results suggest that this type of training can indeed lead to deeper language understanding. These findings have consequences both for cognitive neuroscience by revealing some of the significant factors behind brain-NLP alignment, and for NLP by highlighting that understanding of long-range context can be improved beyond language modeling.

深层语言模型可以是人类认知的解释模型吗？如果是这样，他们的限制是什么？为了探讨这个问题，我们提出了一种称为“超参数假设”的方法，该方法使用预测性超参数调整，以找到认知行为概况的个体描述符。我们通过预测语义流利任务（SFT）中的人类表现迈出了这种方法，这是认知科学中的一项精心研究的任务，从未使用过使用基于变压器的语言模型（TLMS）进行建模。在我们的任务设置中，我们比较了几种方法来预测接下来的单个执行SFT的单词。我们报告了初步证据表明，尽管人们和TLM的学习和使用语言的实施差异明显，但TLMS可用于确定人类流利性任务行为的个体差异，而不是现有计算模型，并且可以提供对人类记忆检索策略的见解 - - 认知过程通常不认为是TLM可以建模的东西。最后，我们讨论了这项工作对知识表示认知建模的含义。

自然语言处理的机器学习快速进步有可能改变有关人类学习语言的辩论。但是，当前人工学习者和人类的学习环境和偏见以削弱从学习模拟获得的证据的影响的方式分歧。例如，当今最有效的神经语言模型接受了典型儿童可用的语言数据量的大约一千倍。为了增加计算模型的可学习性结果的相关性，我们需要培训模型学习者，而没有比人类具有显着优势的学习者。如果合适的模型成功地获得了一些目标语言知识，则可以提供一个概念证明，即在假设的人类学习方案中可以学习目标。合理的模型学习者将使我们能够进行实验操作，以对学习环境中的变量进行因果推断，并严格测试史密斯风格的贫困声明，主张根据人类对人类的先天语言知识，基于有关可学习性的猜测。由于实用和道德的考虑因素，人类受试者将永远无法实现可比的实验，从而使模型学习者成为必不可少的资源。到目前为止，试图剥夺当前模型的不公平优势，为关键语法行为（例如可接受性判断）获得亚人类结果。但是，在我们可以合理地得出结论，语言学习需要比当前模型拥有更多的特定领域知识，我们必须首先以多模式刺激和多代理互动的形式探索非语言意见，以使学习者更有效地学习学习者来自有限的语言输入。

我们研究了现代神经语言模型容易受到结构启动的程度，这种现象使句子的结构在后续句子中更有可能使相同的结构更有可能。我们探索如何使用启动来研究这些模型学习抽象结构信息的潜力，这是需要自然语言理解技能的任务良好表现的先决条件。我们引入了一种新型的度量标准和释放Prime-LM，这是一个大型语料库，我们可以控制与启动强度相互作用的各种语言因素。我们发现，变压器模型确实显示了结构启动的证据，但他们所学到的概括在某种程度上是由语义信息调节的。我们的实验还表明，模型获得的表示不仅可以编码抽象的顺序结构，而且还涉及一定级别的层次句法信息。更普遍的是，我们的研究表明，启动范式是一种有用的，可用于洞悉语言模型能力的有用的，并为未来的基于底漆的调查打开了探测模型内部状态的未来大门。

Current language models are considered to have sub-human capabilities at natural language tasks like question-answering or writing code. However, language models are not trained to perform well at these tasks, they are trained to accurately predict the next token given previous tokes in tokenized text. It is not clear whether language models are better or worse than humans at next token prediction. To try to answer this question, we performed two distinct experiments to directly compare humans and language models on this front: one measuring top-1 accuracy and the other measuring perplexity. In both experiments, we find humans to be consistently \emph{worse} than even relatively small language models like GPT3-Ada at next-token prediction.

Transformer-based large language models are trained to make predictions about the next word by aggregating representations of previous tokens through their self-attention mechanism. In the field of cognitive modeling, such attention patterns have recently been interpreted as embodying the process of cue-based retrieval, in which attention over multiple targets is taken to generate interference and latency during retrieval. Under this framework, this work first defines an entropy-based predictor that quantifies the diffuseness of self-attention, as well as distance-based predictors that capture the incremental change in attention patterns across timesteps. Moreover, following recent studies that question the informativeness of attention weights, we also experiment with alternative methods for incorporating vector norms into attention weights. Regression experiments using predictors calculated from the GPT-2 language model show that these predictors deliver a substantially better fit to held-out self-paced reading and eye-tracking data over a rigorous baseline including GPT-2 surprisal. Additionally, the distance-based predictors generally demonstrated higher predictive power, with effect sizes of up to 6.59 ms per standard deviation on self-paced reading times (compared to 2.82 ms for surprisal) and 1.05 ms per standard deviation on eye-gaze durations (compared to 3.81 ms for surprisal).

我们建议并探讨可以将语言模型作为社会科学研究中特定人类亚人群的有效代理进行研究的可能性。人工智能工具的实践和研究应用有时受到有问题的偏见（例如种族主义或性别歧视）的限制，这些偏见通常被视为模型的统一特性。我们表明，一个这样的工具中的“算法偏见”（GPT-3语言模型）既是细粒度又是人口统计相关的，这意味着适当的条件会导致其准确地仿真来自各种人类的响应分布亚组。我们将此属性称为“算法忠诚度”，并在GPT-3中探索其范围。我们通过将模型调节在美国进行的多项大型调查中的数千个社会人口统计背景故事中调节，从而创建“硅样本”。然后，我们比较硅和人类样品，以证明GPT-3中包含的信息远远超出了表面相似性。它是细微的，多方面的，并反映了特征人类态度的思想，态度和社会文化背景之间的复杂相互作用。我们建议，具有足够算法的忠诚度的语言模型构成了一种新颖而有力的工具，可以促进各种学科的人类和社会的理解。