流行的对象检测度量平均精度（3D AP）依赖于预测的边界框和地面真相边界框之间的结合。但是，基于摄像机的深度估计的精度有限，这可能会导致其他合理的预测，这些预测遭受了如此纵向定位错误，被视为假阳性和假阴性。因此，我们提出了流行的3D AP指标的变体，这些变体旨在在深度估计误差方面更具允许性。具体而言，我们新颖的纵向误差耐受度指标，Let-3D-AP和Let-3D-APL，允许预测的边界框的纵向定位误差，最高为给定的公差。所提出的指标已在Waymo Open DataSet 3D摄像头仅检测挑战中使用。我们认为，它们将通过提供更有信息的性能信号来促进仅相机3D检测领域的进步。

The research community has increasing interest in autonomous driving research, despite the resource intensity of obtaining representative real world data. Existing selfdriving datasets are limited in the scale and variation of the environments they capture, even though generalization within and between operating regions is crucial to the overall viability of the technology. In an effort to help align the research community's contributions with real-world selfdriving problems, we introduce a new large-scale, high quality, diverse dataset. Our new dataset consists of 1150 scenes that each span 20 seconds, consisting of well synchronized and calibrated high quality LiDAR and camera data captured across a range of urban and suburban geographies. It is 15x more diverse than the largest cam-era+LiDAR dataset available based on our proposed geographical coverage metric. We exhaustively annotated this data with 2D (camera image) and 3D (LiDAR) bounding boxes, with consistent identifiers across frames. Finally, we provide strong baselines for 2D as well as 3D detection and tracking tasks. We further study the effects of dataset size and generalization across geographies on 3D detection methods. Find data, code and more up-to-date information at http://www.waymo.com/open.

3D对象检测是安全关键型机器人应用（如自主驾驶）的关键模块。对于这些应用，我们最关心检测如何影响自我代理人的行为和安全性（Egocentric观点）。直观地，当它更有可能干扰自我代理商的运动轨迹时，我们寻求更准确的对象几何描述。然而，基于箱交叉口（IOU）的电流检测指标是以对象为中心的，并且不设计用于捕获物体和自助代理之间的时空关系。为了解决这个问题，我们提出了一种新的EnoCentric测量来评估3D对象检测，即支持距离误差（SDE）。我们基于SDE的分析显示，EPECENTIC检测质量由边界框的粗糙几何形状界定。鉴于SDE将从更准确的几何描述中受益的洞察力，我们建议将物体代表为Amodal轮廓，特别是Amodal星形多边形，并设计简单的模型，椋鸟，预测这种轮廓。我们对大型Waymo公开数据集的实验表明，与IOU相比，SDE更好地反映了检测质量对自我代理人安全的影响;恒星的估计轮廓始终如一地改善最近的3D对象探测器的Enocentric检测质量。

How would you fairly evaluate two multi-object tracking algorithms (i.e. trackers), each one employing a different object detector? Detectors keep improving, thus trackers can make less effort to estimate object states over time. Is it then fair to compare a new tracker employing a new detector with another tracker using an old detector? In this paper, we propose a novel performance measure, named Tracking Effort Measure (TEM), to evaluate trackers that use different detectors. TEM estimates the improvement that the tracker does with respect to its input data (i.e. detections) at frame level (intra-frame complexity) and sequence level (inter-frame complexity). We evaluate TEM over well-known datasets, four trackers and eight detection sets. Results show that, unlike conventional tracking evaluation measures, TEM can quantify the effort done by the tracker with a reduced correlation on the input detections. Its implementation is publicly available online at https://github.com/vpulab/MOT-evaluation.

Figure 1: Results obtained from our single image, monocular 3D object detection network MonoDIS on a KITTI3D test image with corresponding birds-eye view, showing its ability to estimate size and orientation of objects at different scales.

Multi-object tracking is a cornerstone capability of any robotic system. Most approaches follow a tracking-by-detection paradigm. However, within this framework, detectors function in a low precision-high recall regime, ensuring a low number of false-negatives while producing a high rate of false-positives. This can negatively affect the tracking component by making data association and track lifecycle management more challenging. Additionally, false-negative detections due to difficult scenarios like occlusions can negatively affect tracking performance. Thus, we propose a method that learns shape and spatio-temporal affinities between consecutive frames to better distinguish between true-positive and false-positive detections and tracks, while compensating for false-negative detections. Our method provides a probabilistic matching of detections that leads to robust data association and track lifecycle management. We quantitatively evaluate our method through ablative experiments and on the nuScenes tracking benchmark where we achieve state-of-the-art results. Our method not only estimates accurate, high-quality tracks but also decreases the overall number of false-positive and false-negative tracks. Please see our project website for source code and demo videos: sites.google.com/view/shasta-3d-mot/home.

人发现是在人居住环境中导航的移动机器人的至关重要任务。激光雷达传感器在此任务中很有希望，这要归功于其准确的深度测量和较大的视野。存在两种类型的LIDAR传感器：扫描单个平面的2D LIDAR传感器和3D激光雷达传感器，它们扫描多个平面，从而形成体积。他们如何比较人检测任务？为了回答这一点，我们使用公共大规模的Jackrabbot数据集以及最先进的2D和3D激光雷达的人检测器（分别是DR-SPAAM和CenterPoint）进行了一系列实验。我们的实验包括多个方面，从基本性能和速度比较到对距离和场景混乱的本地化精度和鲁棒性的更详细分析。这些实验的见解突出了2D和3D激光雷达传感器的优势和劣势作为人检测的来源，并且对于设计将与周围人类密切运行的移动机器人特别有价值（例如，服务或社交机器人）。

To track the 3D locations and trajectories of the other traffic participants at any given time, modern autonomous vehicles are equipped with multiple cameras that cover the vehicle's full surroundings. Yet, camera-based 3D object tracking methods prioritize optimizing the single-camera setup and resort to post-hoc fusion in a multi-camera setup. In this paper, we propose a method for panoramic 3D object tracking, called CC-3DT, that associates and models object trajectories both temporally and across views, and improves the overall tracking consistency. In particular, our method fuses 3D detections from multiple cameras before association, reducing identity switches significantly and improving motion modeling. Our experiments on large-scale driving datasets show that fusion before association leads to a large margin of improvement over post-hoc fusion. We set a new state-of-the-art with 12.6% improvement in average multi-object tracking accuracy (AMOTA) among all camera-based methods on the competitive NuScenes 3D tracking benchmark, outperforming previously published methods by 6.5% in AMOTA with the same 3D detector.

尽管广泛用作可视检测任务的性能措施，但平均精度（AP）In（i）的限制在反映了本地化质量，（ii）对其计算的设计选择的鲁棒性以及其对输出的适用性没有信心分数。 Panoptic质量（PQ），提出评估Panoptic Seationation（Kirillov等，2019）的措施，不会遭受这些限制，而是限于Panoptic Seationation。在本文中，我们提出了基于其本地化和分类质量的视觉检测器的平均匹配误差，提出了定位召回精度（LRP）误差。 LRP错误，最初仅为Oksuz等人进行对象检测。 （2018），不遭受上述限制，适用于所有视觉检测任务。我们还介绍了最佳LRP（OLRP）错误，因为通过置信区获得的最小LRP错误以评估视觉检测器并获得部署的最佳阈值。我们提供对AP和PQ的LRP误差的详细比较分析，并使用七个可视检测任务（即对象检测，关键点检测，实例分割，Panoptic分段，视觉关系检测，使用近100个最先进的视觉检测器零拍摄检测和广义零拍摄检测）使用10个数据集来统一地显示LRP误差提供比其对应物更丰富和更辨别的信息。可用的代码：https：//github.com/kemaloksuz/lrp-error

作为现代深度学习框架的静态计算图的一部分，评估可可平均平均精度（MAP）和可可召回指标会带来一系列独特的挑战。这些挑战包括需要保持动态大小的状态以计算平均平均精度，对全局数据集级别统计数据计算指标的依赖，以及管理批次中图像之间的边界框不同的数量。结果，研究人员和从业人员将可可指标评估为培训后评估步骤是普遍的实践。使用图形友好的算法来计算可可平均的平均精度和回忆，可以在训练时间评估这些指标，从而提高通过训练曲线图的指标演变的可见性，并在原型进行新模型版本时降低迭代时间。我们的贡献包括平均平均精度的准确近似算法，可可平均平均精度和可可召回的开源实现，广泛的数值基准测试以验证我们实施的准确性以及包括火车时间评估的开源培训循环平均平均精度和回忆。

Robust detection and tracking of objects is crucial for the deployment of autonomous vehicle technology. Image based benchmark datasets have driven development in computer vision tasks such as object detection, tracking and segmentation of agents in the environment. Most autonomous vehicles, however, carry a combination of cameras and range sensors such as lidar and radar. As machine learning based methods for detection and tracking become more prevalent, there is a need to train and evaluate such methods on datasets containing range sensor data along with images. In this work we present nuTonomy scenes (nuScenes), the first dataset to carry the full autonomous vehicle sensor suite: 6 cameras, 5 radars and 1 lidar, all with full 360 degree field of view. nuScenes comprises 1000 scenes, each 20s long and fully annotated with 3D bounding boxes for 23 classes and 8 attributes. It has 7x as many annotations and 100x as many images as the pioneering KITTI dataset. We define novel 3D detection and tracking metrics. We also provide careful dataset analysis as well as baselines for lidar and image based detection and tracking. Data, development kit and more information are available online 1 .

3D对象检测是各种实际应用所需的重要功能，例如驾驶员辅助系统。单眼3D检测作为基于图像的方法的代表性的常规设置，提供比依赖Lidars的传统设置更经济的解决方案，但仍然产生不令人满意的结果。本文首先提出了对这个问题的系统研究。我们观察到，目前的单目3D检测可以简化为实例深度估计问题：不准确的实例深度阻止所有其他3D属性预测改善整体检测性能。此外，最近的方法直接估计基于孤立的实例或像素的深度，同时忽略不同对象的几何关系。为此，我们在跨预测对象构建几何关系图，并使用该图来促进深度估计。随着每个实例的初步深度估计通常在这种不均匀的环境中通常不准确，我们纳入了概率表示以捕获不确定性。它提供了一个重要的指标，以确定自信的预测并进一步引导深度传播。尽管基本思想的简单性，但我们的方法，PGD对基蒂和NUSCENES基准的显着改进，尽管在所有单眼视觉的方法中实现了第1个，同时仍保持实时效率。代码和模型将在https://github.com/open-mmlab/mmdetection3d发布。

3D object detection is an essential task in autonomous driving. Recent techniques excel with highly accurate detection rates, provided the 3D input data is obtained from precise but expensive LiDAR technology. Approaches based on cheaper monocular or stereo imagery data have, until now, resulted in drastically lower accuracies -a gap that is commonly attributed to poor image-based depth estimation. However, in this paper we argue that it is not the quality of the data but its representation that accounts for the majority of the difference. Taking the inner workings of convolutional neural networks into consideration, we propose to convert image-based depth maps to pseudo-LiDAR representations -essentially mimicking the LiDAR signal. With this representation we can apply different existing LiDAR-based detection algorithms. On the popular KITTI benchmark, our approach achieves impressive improvements over the existing state-of-the-art in image-based performance -raising the detection accuracy of objects within the 30m range from the previous state-of-the-art of 22% to an unprecedented 74%. At the time of submission our algorithm holds the highest entry on the KITTI 3D object detection leaderboard for stereo-image-based approaches. Our code is publicly available at https: //github.com/mileyan/pseudo_lidar.

We address the problem of real-time 3D object detection from point clouds in the context of autonomous driving. Computation speed is critical as detection is a necessary component for safety. Existing approaches are, however, expensive in computation due to high dimensionality of point clouds. We utilize the 3D data more efficiently by representing the scene from the Bird's Eye View (BEV), and propose PIXOR, a proposal-free, single-stage detector that outputs oriented 3D object estimates decoded from pixelwise neural network predictions. The input representation, network architecture, and model optimization are especially designed to balance high accuracy and real-time efficiency. We validate PIXOR on two datasets: the KITTI BEV object detection benchmark, and a large-scale 3D vehicle detection benchmark. In both datasets we show that the proposed detector surpasses other state-of-the-art methods notably in terms of Average Precision (AP), while still runs at > 28 FPS.

以视觉为中心的BEV感知由于其固有的优点，最近受到行业和学术界的关注，包括展示世界自然代表和融合友好。随着深度学习的快速发展，已经提出了许多方法来解决以视觉为中心的BEV感知。但是，最近没有针对这个小说和不断发展的研究领域的调查。为了刺激其未来的研究，本文对以视觉为中心的BEV感知及其扩展进行了全面调查。它收集并组织了最近的知识，并对常用算法进行了系统的综述和摘要。它还为几项BEV感知任务提供了深入的分析和比较结果，从而促进了未来作品的比较并激发了未来的研究方向。此外，还讨论了经验实现细节并证明有利于相关算法的开发。

Compared to typical multi-sensor systems, monocular 3D object detection has attracted much attention due to its simple configuration. However, there is still a significant gap between LiDAR-based and monocular-based methods. In this paper, we find that the ill-posed nature of monocular imagery can lead to depth ambiguity. Specifically, objects with different depths can appear with the same bounding boxes and similar visual features in the 2D image. Unfortunately, the network cannot accurately distinguish different depths from such non-discriminative visual features, resulting in unstable depth training. To facilitate depth learning, we propose a simple yet effective plug-and-play module, One Bounding Box Multiple Objects (OBMO). Concretely, we add a set of suitable pseudo labels by shifting the 3D bounding box along the viewing frustum. To constrain the pseudo-3D labels to be reasonable, we carefully design two label scoring strategies to represent their quality. In contrast to the original hard depth labels, such soft pseudo labels with quality scores allow the network to learn a reasonable depth range, boosting training stability and thus improving final performance. Extensive experiments on KITTI and Waymo benchmarks show that our method significantly improves state-of-the-art monocular 3D detectors by a significant margin (The improvements under the moderate setting on KITTI validation set are $\mathbf{1.82\sim 10.91\%}$ mAP in BEV and $\mathbf{1.18\sim 9.36\%}$ mAP in 3D}. Codes have been released at https://github.com/mrsempress/OBMO.

本文研究了涉及对象集，对象检测，实例级分段和多对象跟踪的基本视觉任务的性能评估标准。现有标准的算法排名可能会以不同的参数选择波动，例如联合（IOU）阈值的交叉点使他们的评估不可靠。更重要的是，没有能够验证我们是否可以相信标准的评估。这项工作提出了对性能标准的可信赖性的概念，该概念需要（i）对可靠性的参数鲁棒性，（ii）理智测试中的上下文意义，以及（iii）与数学要求（例如度量属性）的一致性。我们观察到这些要求被许多广泛使用的标准忽略了，并使用一组形状的指标探索替代标准。我们还根据建议的可信度要求评估所有这些标准。

Non-maximum suppression is an integral part of the object detection pipeline. First, it sorts all detection boxes on the basis of their scores. The detection box M with the maximum score is selected and all other detection boxes with a significant overlap (using a pre-defined threshold) with M are suppressed. This process is recursively applied on the remaining boxes. As per the design of the algorithm, if an object lies within the predefined overlap threshold, it leads to a miss. To this end, we propose Soft-NMS, an algorithm which decays the detection scores of all other objects as a continuous function of their overlap with M. Hence, no object is eliminated in this process. Soft-NMS obtains consistent improvements for the coco-style mAP metric on standard datasets like PASCAL VOC 2007 (1.7% for both R-FCN and Faster-RCNN) and MS-COCO (1.3% for R-FCN and 1.1% for Faster-RCNN) by just changing the NMS algorithm without any additional hyper-parameters. UsingDeformable-RFCN, Soft-NMS improves state-of-the-art in object detection from 39.8% to 40.9% with a single model. Further, the computational complexity of Soft-NMS is the same as traditional NMS and hence it can be efficiently implemented. Since Soft-NMS does not require any extra training and is simple to implement, it can be easily integrated into any object detection pipeline. Code for Soft-NMS is publicly available on GitHub http://bit.ly/ 2nJLNMu.

以前的在线3D多对象跟踪（3DMOT）方法在与几帧的新检测无关时终止ROCKET。但是如果一个物体刚刚变暗，就像被其他物体暂时封闭或者只是从FOV暂时封闭一样，过早地终止ROCKET将导致身份切换。我们揭示了过早的轨迹终端是现代3DMOT系统中身份开关的主要原因。为了解决这个问题，我们提出了一个不朽的跟踪器，一个简单的跟踪系统，它利用轨迹预测来维护对象变暗的物体的轨迹。我们使用一个简单的卡尔曼滤波器进行轨迹预测，并在目标不可见时通过预测保留轨迹。通过这种方法，我们可以避免由过早托管终止产生的96％的车辆标识开关。如果没有任何学习的参数，我们的方法在Waymo Open DataSet测试集上的车载类别的0.0001级和竞争Mota处实现了不匹配的比率。我们的不匹配比率比任何先前发表的方法低一倍。在NUSCENes上报告了类似的结果。我们相信拟议的不朽追踪器可以为推动3DMOT的极限提供简单而强大的解决方案。我们的代码可在https://github.com/immortaltracker/immortaltracker中找到。

Accurate representation and localization of relevant objects is important for robots to perform tasks. Building a generic representation that can be used across different environments and tasks is not easy, as the relevant objects vary depending on the environment and the task. Furthermore, another challenge arises in agro-food environments due to their complexity, and high levels of clutter and occlusions. In this paper, we present a method to build generic representations in highly occluded agro-food environments using multi-view perception and 3D multi-object tracking. Our representation is built upon a detection algorithm that generates a partial point cloud for each detected object. The detected objects are then passed to a 3D multi-object tracking algorithm that creates and updates the representation over time. The whole process is performed at a rate of 10 Hz. We evaluated the accuracy of the representation on a real-world agro-food environment, where it was able to successfully represent and locate tomatoes in tomato plants despite a high level of occlusion. We were able to estimate the total count of tomatoes with a maximum error of 5.08% and to track tomatoes with a tracking accuracy up to 71.47%. Additionally, we showed that an evaluation using tracking metrics gives more insight in the errors in localizing and representing the fruits.