近年来，自动微动性吸引了研究人员和从业者的注意。许多微型传输车辆的关键组成部分是DC电动机，DC电动机是连续且非线性的复杂动力系统。对于需要稳健性和稳定性的各种应用，需要在存在干扰和不确定性的情况下快速控制直流电动机。完成此任务的技术通常依赖于数学系统模型，该模型通常不足以预测非线性的时变和相互关联来源的影响。尽管某些无模型方法在任务方面取得了成功，但它们依赖于与系统的大规模交互，并接受了专门的硬件培训，以适合高度参数化的控制器。在这项工作中，我们学会通过样品有效的增强学习来引导直流电动机。使用现实世界中硬件交互收集的数据，我们还构建了一个模拟器，以实验各种参数和学习策略。找到最佳参数，我们在模拟的一分钟和53秒内学习了有效的控制策略，并在10分钟35秒内在物理系统上学习了一个有效的控制策略。

Deep reinforcement learning is poised to revolutionise the field of AI and represents a step towards building autonomous systems with a higher level understanding of the visual world. Currently, deep learning is enabling reinforcement learning to scale to problems that were previously intractable, such as learning to play video games directly from pixels. Deep reinforcement learning algorithms are also applied to robotics, allowing control policies for robots to be learned directly from camera inputs in the real world. In this survey, we begin with an introduction to the general field of reinforcement learning, then progress to the main streams of value-based and policybased methods. Our survey will cover central algorithms in deep reinforcement learning, including the deep Q-network, trust region policy optimisation, and asynchronous advantage actor-critic. In parallel, we highlight the unique advantages of deep neural networks, focusing on visual understanding via reinforcement learning. To conclude, we describe several current areas of research within the field.

深度强化学习（DRL）是一种有前途的方法，可以通过与环境的互动来学习政策来解决复杂的控制任务。但是，对DRL政策的培训需要大量的培训经验，这使得直接了解物理系统的政策是不切实际的。 SIM到运行的方法可以利用模拟来验证DRL政策，然后将其部署在现实世界中。不幸的是，经过验证的政策的直接现实部署通常由于不同的动态（称为现实差距）而遭受性能恶化。最近的SIM到现实方法，例如域随机化和域的适应性，重点是改善预审预告剂的鲁棒性。然而，经过模拟训练的策略通常需要使用现实世界中的数据来调整以达到最佳性能，这是由于现实世界样本的高成本而具有挑战性的。这项工作提出了一个分布式的云边缘建筑，以实时培训现实世界中的DRL代理。在体系结构中，推理和训练被分配到边缘和云，将实时控制循环与计算昂贵的训练回路分开。为了克服现实差距，我们的体系结构利用了SIM到现实的转移策略，以继续在物理系统上训练模拟预言的代理。我们证明了其在物理倒置螺旋控制系统上的适用性，分析了关键参数。现实世界实验表明，我们的体系结构可以使验证的DRL代理能够始终如一，有效地看不见动态。

从意外的外部扰动中恢复的能力是双模型运动的基本机动技能。有效的答复包括不仅可以恢复平衡并保持稳定性的能力，而且在平衡恢复物质不可行时，也可以保证安全的方式。对于与双式运动有关的机器人，例如人形机器人和辅助机器人设备，可帮助人类行走，设计能够提供这种稳定性和安全性的控制器可以防止机器人损坏或防止伤害相关的医疗费用。这是一个具有挑战性的任务，因为它涉及用触点产生高维，非线性和致动系统的高动态运动。尽管使用基于模型和优化方法的前进方面，但诸如广泛领域知识的要求，诸如较大的计算时间和有限的动态变化的鲁棒性仍然会使这个打开问题。在本文中，为了解决这些问题，我们开发基于学习的算法，能够为两种不同的机器人合成推送恢复控制政策：人形机器人和有助于双模型运动的辅助机器人设备。我们的工作可以分为两个密切相关的指示：1）学习人形机器人的安全下降和预防策略，2）使用机器人辅助装置学习人类的预防策略。为实现这一目标，我们介绍了一套深度加强学习（DRL）算法，以学习使用这些机器人时提高安全性的控制策略。

策略搜索和模型预测控制〜（MPC）是机器人控制的两个不同范式：策略搜索具有使用经验丰富的数据自动学习复杂策略的强度，而MPC可以使用模型和轨迹优化提供最佳控制性能。开放的研究问题是如何利用并结合两种方法的优势。在这项工作中，我们通过使用策略搜索自动选择MPC的高级决策变量提供答案，这导致了一种新的策略搜索 - 用于模型预测控制框架。具体地，我们将MPC作为参数化控制器配制，其中难以优化的决策变量表示为高级策略。这种制定允许以自我监督的方式优化政策。我们通过专注于敏捷无人机飞行中的具有挑战性的问题来验证这一框架：通过快速的盖茨飞行四轮车。实验表明，我们的控制器在模拟和现实世界中实现了鲁棒和实时的控制性能。拟议的框架提供了合并学习和控制的新视角。

With the development of deep representation learning, the domain of reinforcement learning (RL) has become a powerful learning framework now capable of learning complex policies in high dimensional environments. This review summarises deep reinforcement learning (DRL) algorithms and provides a taxonomy of automated driving tasks where (D)RL methods have been employed, while addressing key computational challenges in real world deployment of autonomous driving agents. It also delineates adjacent domains such as behavior cloning, imitation learning, inverse reinforcement learning that are related but are not classical RL algorithms. The role of simulators in training agents, methods to validate, test and robustify existing solutions in RL are discussed.

The high emission and low energy efficiency caused by internal combustion engines (ICE) have become unacceptable under environmental regulations and the energy crisis. As a promising alternative solution, multi-power source electric vehicles (MPS-EVs) introduce different clean energy systems to improve powertrain efficiency. The energy management strategy (EMS) is a critical technology for MPS-EVs to maximize efficiency, fuel economy, and range. Reinforcement learning (RL) has become an effective methodology for the development of EMS. RL has received continuous attention and research, but there is still a lack of systematic analysis of the design elements of RL-based EMS. To this end, this paper presents an in-depth analysis of the current research on RL-based EMS (RL-EMS) and summarizes the design elements of RL-based EMS. This paper first summarizes the previous applications of RL in EMS from five aspects: algorithm, perception scheme, decision scheme, reward function, and innovative training method. The contribution of advanced algorithms to the training effect is shown, the perception and control schemes in the literature are analyzed in detail, different reward function settings are classified, and innovative training methods with their roles are elaborated. Finally, by comparing the development routes of RL and RL-EMS, this paper identifies the gap between advanced RL solutions and existing RL-EMS. Finally, this paper suggests potential development directions for implementing advanced artificial intelligence (AI) solutions in EMS.

In this paper, we place deep Q-learning into a control-oriented perspective and study its learning dynamics with well-established techniques from robust control. We formulate an uncertain linear time-invariant model by means of the neural tangent kernel to describe learning. We show the instability of learning and analyze the agent's behavior in frequency-domain. Then, we ensure convergence via robust controllers acting as dynamical rewards in the loss function. We synthesize three controllers: state-feedback gain scheduling H2, dynamic Hinf, and constant gain Hinf controllers. Setting up the learning agent with a control-oriented tuning methodology is more transparent and has well-established literature compared to the heuristics in reinforcement learning. In addition, our approach does not use a target network and randomized replay memory. The role of the target network is overtaken by the control input, which also exploits the temporal dependency of samples (opposed to a randomized memory buffer). Numerical simulations in different OpenAI Gym environments suggest that the Hinf controlled learning performs slightly better than Double deep Q-learning.

Batch reinforcement learning is a subfield of dynamic programming-based reinforcement learning. Originally defined as the task of learning the best possible policy from a fixed set of a priori-known transition samples, the (batch) algorithms developed in this field can be easily adapted to the classical online case, where the agent interacts with the environment while learning. Due to the efficient use of collected data and the stability of the learning process, this research area has attracted a lot of attention recently. In this chapter, we introduce the basic principles and the theory behind batch reinforcement learning, describe the most important algorithms, exemplarily discuss ongoing research within this field, and briefly survey real-world applications of batch reinforcement learning.

Legged robots pose one of the greatest challenges in robotics. Dynamic and agile maneuvers of animals cannot be imitated by existing methods that are crafted by humans. A compelling alternative is reinforcement learning, which requires minimal craftsmanship and promotes the natural evolution of a control policy. However, so far, reinforcement learning research for legged robots is mainly limited to simulation, and only few and comparably simple examples have been deployed on real systems. The primary reason is that training with real robots, particularly with dynamically balancing systems, is complicated and expensive. In the present work, we report a new method for training a neural network policy in simulation and transferring it to a state-of-the-art legged system, thereby we leverage fast, automated, and cost-effective data generation schemes. The approach is applied to the ANYmal robot, a sophisticated medium-dog-sized quadrupedal system. Using policies trained in simulation, the quadrupedal machine achieves locomotion skills that go beyond what had been achieved with prior methods: ANYmal is capable of precisely and energy-efficiently following high-level body velocity commands, running faster than ever before, and recovering from falling even in complex configurations.

现在，最先进的强化学习能够在模拟中学习双皮亚机器人的多功能运动，平衡和推送能力。然而，现实差距大多被忽略了，模拟结果几乎不会转移到真实硬件上。在实践中，它是不成功的，因为物理学过度简化，硬件限制被忽略，或者不能保证规律性，并且可能会发生意外的危险运动。本文提出了一个强化学习框架，该框架能够学习以平稳的开箱即用向现实的转移，仅需要瞬时的本体感受观察，可以学习强大的站立式恢复。通过结合原始的终止条件和政策平滑度调节，我们使用没有记忆力或观察历史的政策实现了稳定的学习，SIM转移和安全性。然后使用奖励成型来提供有关如何保持平衡的见解。我们展示了其在下LIMB医学外骨骼Atalante中的现实表现。

Dealing with sparse rewards is one of the biggest challenges in Reinforcement Learning (RL). We present a novel technique called Hindsight Experience Replay which allows sample-efficient learning from rewards which are sparse and binary and therefore avoid the need for complicated reward engineering. It can be combined with an arbitrary off-policy RL algorithm and may be seen as a form of implicit curriculum. We demonstrate our approach on the task of manipulating objects with a robotic arm. In particular, we run experiments on three different tasks: pushing, sliding, and pick-and-place, in each case using only binary rewards indicating whether or not the task is completed. Our ablation studies show that Hindsight Experience Replay is a crucial ingredient which makes training possible in these challenging environments. We show that our policies trained on a physics simulation can be deployed on a physical robot and successfully complete the task. The video presenting our experiments is available at https://goo.gl/SMrQnI.

在本文中，我们通过神经生成编码的神经认知计算框架（NGC）提出了一种无反向传播的方法，以机器人控制（NGC），设计了一种完全由强大的预测性编码/处理电路构建的代理，体现计划的原则。具体而言，我们制作了一种自适应剂系统，我们称之为主动预测性编码（ACTPC），该系统可以平衡内部生成的认知信号（旨在鼓励智能探索）与内部生成的仪器信号（旨在鼓励寻求目标行为）最终学习如何使用现实的机器人模拟器（即超现实的机器人套件）来控制各种模拟机器人系统以及复杂的机器人臂，以解决块提升任务并可能选择问题。值得注意的是，我们的实验结果表明，我们提出的ACTPC代理在面对稀疏（外部）奖励信号方面表现良好，并且具有竞争力或竞争性或胜过几种强大的基于反向Prop的RL方法。

We adapt the ideas underlying the success of Deep Q-Learning to the continuous action domain. We present an actor-critic, model-free algorithm based on the deterministic policy gradient that can operate over continuous action spaces. Using the same learning algorithm, network architecture and hyper-parameters, our algorithm robustly solves more than 20 simulated physics tasks, including classic problems such as cartpole swing-up, dexterous manipulation, legged locomotion and car driving. Our algorithm is able to find policies whose performance is competitive with those found by a planning algorithm with full access to the dynamics of the domain and its derivatives. We further demonstrate that for many of the tasks the algorithm can learn policies "end-to-end": directly from raw pixel inputs.

在许多机器人和工业应用中，传统的线性控制策略已经广泛研究和使用，但它们不应响应系统的总动态，以避免对非线性控制等非线性控制方案的繁琐计算，加强学习的预测控制应用可以提供替代解决方案本文介绍了在移动自拍的深度确定性政策梯度和近端策略优化的情况下实现了RL控制的实现，在移动自拍伸直倒立摆片EWIP系统这样的RL模型使得找到满意控制方案的任务更容易，并在自我调整时有效地响应动态。在本文中提供更好控制的参数，两个RL基础控制器被针对MPC控制器捕获，以基于EWIP系统的状态变量进行评估，同时遵循特定的所需轨迹

我们展示了通过大规模多代理端到端增强学习的大射击可转移到真正的四轮压力机的无人驾驶群体控制器的可能性。我们培训由神经网络参数化的政策，该政策能够以完全分散的方式控制群体中的各个无人机。我们的政策，在具有现实的四轮流物理学的模拟环境中训练，展示了先进的植绒行为，在紧张的地层中执行侵略性的操作，同时避免彼此的碰撞，破裂和重新建立地层，以避免与移动障碍的碰撞，并有效地协调追求障碍，并有效地协调追求逃避任务。在模拟中，我们分析了培训制度的不同模型架构和参数影响神经群的最终表现。我们展示了在模拟中学习的模型的成功部署到高度资源受限的物理四体体执行站保持和目标交换行为。在Propers网站上提供代码和视频演示，在https://sites.google.com/view/swarm-rl上获得。

值得信赖的强化学习算法应有能力解决挑战性的现实问题，包括{Robustly}处理不确定性，满足{安全}的限制以避免灾难性的失败，以及在部署过程中{prencepentiming}以避免灾难性的失败}。这项研究旨在概述这些可信赖的强化学习的主要观点，即考虑其在鲁棒性，安全性和概括性上的内在脆弱性。特别是，我们给出严格的表述，对相应的方法进行分类，并讨论每个观点的基准。此外，我们提供了一个前景部分，以刺激有希望的未来方向，并简要讨论考虑人类反馈的外部漏洞。我们希望这项调查可以在统一的框架中将单独的研究汇合在一起，并促进强化学习的可信度。

深度加强学习（RL）使得可以使用神经网络作为功能近似器来解决复杂的机器人问题。然而，在从一个环境转移到另一个环境时，在普通环境中培训的政策在泛化方面受到影响。在这项工作中，我们使用强大的马尔可夫决策过程（RMDP）来训练无人机控制策略，这将思想与强大的控制和RL相结合。它选择了悲观优化，以处理从一个环境到另一个环境的策略转移之间的潜在间隙。训练有素的控制策略是关于四转位位置控制的任务。 RL代理商在Mujoco模拟器中培训。在测试期间，使用不同的环境参数（培训期间看不见）来验证训练策略的稳健性，以从一个环境转移到另一个环境。强大的政策在这些环境中表现出标准代理，表明增加的鲁棒性增加了一般性，并且可以适应非静止环境。代码：https://github.com/adipandas/gym_multirotor

机器人系统的控制设计很复杂，通常需要解决优化才能准确遵循轨迹。在线优化方法（例如模型预测性控制（MPC））已被证明可以实现出色的跟踪性能，但需要高计算能力。相反，基于学习的离线优化方法，例如加固学习（RL），可以在机器人上快速有效地执行，但几乎不匹配MPC在轨迹跟踪任务中的准确性。在具有有限计算的系统（例如航空车）中，必须在执行时间有效的精确控制器。我们提出了一种分析策略梯度（APG）方法来解决此问题。 APG通过在跟踪误差上以梯度下降的速度训练控制器来利用可区分的模拟器的可用性。我们解决了通过课程学习和实验经常在广泛使用的控制基准，Cartpole和两个常见的空中机器人，一个四极管和固定翼无人机上进行的训练不稳定性。在跟踪误差方面，我们提出的方法优于基于模型和无模型的RL方法。同时，它达到与MPC相似的性能，同时需要少于数量级的计算时间。我们的工作为APG作为机器人技术的有前途的控制方法提供了见解。为了促进对APG的探索，我们开放代码并在https://github.com/lis-epfl/apg_traightory_tracking上提供。

强化学习（RL）文献的最新进展使机器人主义者能够在模拟环境中自动训练复杂的政策。但是，由于这些方法的样本复杂性差，使用现实世界数据解决强化学习问题仍然是一个具有挑战性的问题。本文介绍了一种新颖的成本整形方法，旨在减少学习稳定控制器所需的样品数量。该方法添加了一个涉及控制Lyapunov功能（CLF）的术语 - 基于模型的控制文献的“能量样”功能 - 到典型的成本配方。理论结果表明，新的成本会导致使用较小的折现因子时稳定控制器，这是众所周知的，以降低样品复杂性。此外，通过确保即使是高度亚最佳的策略也可以稳定系统，添加CLF术语“鲁棒化”搜索稳定控制器。我们通过两个硬件示例演示了我们的方法，在其中我们学习了一个cartpole的稳定控制器和仅使用几秒钟和几分钟的微调数据的A1稳定控制器。