在预测 - 优化框架中,目的是训练预测模型,从环境特征映射到优化问题的参数,这使得当优化被求解时最大化判定质量。最近的决定学习的工作表明,与依赖于用于评估预测质量的中间损耗功能相比,嵌入训练管道中的优化问题可以提高判定质量,并帮助更好地提高未经任务的任务。我们研究了通过增强学习解决的顺序决策问题(制定为MDP)的上下文中的预测 - 优化框架。特别是,我们是给予的环境特征和来自训练MDP的一组轨迹,我们用于训练推广的预测模型,无需轨迹。在将决策的学习应用于MDPS上,出现了两个重要的计算挑战:(i)大状态和行动空间使现有技术可行,以区分通过MDP问题,并且(ii)是由神经的参数化的高维策略空间网络,通过昂贵的政策进行区分。我们通过采样可释放的无偏见的衍生物来解决第一挑战,以通过最优条件近似和分辨,并通过使用基于高维样本的衍生物的低秩近似来分辨。我们在缺少参数的三个不同MDP问题上实现了基于Bellman的基于政策梯度的决定学习,并表明,决定的学习在概括任务中表现更好。
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本文研究了不知所措的多臂匪徒(RMAB)问题,该问题具有未知的手臂过渡动力学,但具有已知的相关手臂特征。目的是学习一个模型,以预测给定功能的过渡动态,在这种功能下,使用预测的过渡解决了RMAB问题。但是,先前的工作通常通过最大化预测精度而不是最终的RMAB解决方案质量来学习模型,从而在培训和评估目标之间导致不匹配。为了解决这一缺点,我们提出了一种新颖的方法,用于在RMAB中以决策为中心的学习,该方法直接训练预测模型,以最大程度地提高Whittle索引解决方案质量。我们提出了三个关键贡献:(i)我们建立了Whittle Index政策以支持决策的学习的不同; (ii)我们在顺序问题中显着提高了以前以决策为中心的学习方法的可伸缩性; (iii)我们将算法应用于现实世界中的母婴健康领域的服务通话计划问题。我们的算法是第一个在RMAB中以决策为中心的学习,该学习范围扩展到大型现实世界中的问题。 \ end {摘要}
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由于数据量增加,金融业的快速变化已经彻底改变了数据处理和数据分析的技术,并带来了新的理论和计算挑战。与古典随机控制理论和解决财务决策问题的其他分析方法相比,解决模型假设的财务决策问题,强化学习(RL)的新发展能够充分利用具有更少模型假设的大量财务数据并改善复杂的金融环境中的决策。该调查纸目的旨在审查最近的资金途径的发展和使用RL方法。我们介绍了马尔可夫决策过程,这是许多常用的RL方法的设置。然后引入各种算法,重点介绍不需要任何模型假设的基于价值和基于策略的方法。连接是用神经网络进行的,以扩展框架以包含深的RL算法。我们的调查通过讨论了这些RL算法在金融中各种决策问题中的应用,包括最佳执行,投资组合优化,期权定价和对冲,市场制作,智能订单路由和Robo-Awaring。
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政策梯度定理(Sutton等,2000)规定了目标政策下的累积折扣国家分配以近似梯度。实际上,基于该定理的大多数算法都打破了这一假设,引入了分布转移,该分配转移可能导致逆转溶液的收敛性。在本文中,我们提出了一种新的方法,可以从开始状态重建政策梯度,而无需采取特定的采样策略。可以根据梯度评论家来简化此形式的策略梯度计算,由于梯度的新钟声方程式,可以递归估算。通过使用来自差异数据流的梯度评论家的时间差异更新,我们开发了第一个以无模型方式避开分布变化问题的估计器。我们证明,在某些可实现的条件下,无论采样策略如何,我们的估计器都是公正的。我们从经验上表明,我们的技术在存在非政策样品的情况下实现了卓越的偏见变化权衡和性能。
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策略梯度方法适用于复杂的,不理解的,通过对参数化的策略进行随机梯度下降来控制问题。不幸的是,即使对于可以通过标准动态编程技术解决的简单控制问题,策略梯度算法也会面临非凸优化问题,并且被广泛理解为仅收敛到固定点。这项工作确定了结构属性 - 通过几个经典控制问题共享 - 确保策略梯度目标函数尽管是非凸面,但没有次优的固定点。当这些条件得到加强时,该目标满足了产生收敛速率的Polyak-lojasiewicz(梯度优势)条件。当其中一些条件放松时,我们还可以在任何固定点的最佳差距上提供界限。
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模型 - 不可知的元增强学习需要估算价值函数的黑森斯矩阵。这是从实施角度挑战,反复区分政策梯度估计可能导致偏见的Hessian估计。在这项工作中,我们提供了一个统一的框架,用于估算价值函数的高阶导数,基于禁止策略评估。我们的框架将许多现有方法解释为特殊情况,并阐明了Hessian估计的偏差和方差权衡。该框架还打开了一个新的估计系列的大门,这可以通过自动差异化库轻松实现,并在实践中导致性能提升。
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政策梯度(PG)算法是备受期待的强化学习对现实世界控制任务(例如机器人技术)的最佳候选人之一。但是,每当必须在物理系统上执行学习过程本身或涉及任何形式的人类计算机相互作用时,这些方法的反复试验性质就会提出安全问题。在本文中,我们解决了一种特定的安全公式,其中目标和危险都以标量奖励信号进行编码,并且学习代理被限制为从不恶化其性能,以衡量为预期的奖励总和。通过从随机优化的角度研究仅行为者的政策梯度,我们为广泛的参数政策建立了改进保证,从而将现有结果推广到高斯政策上。这与策略梯度估计器的差异的新型上限一起,使我们能够识别出具有很高概率的单调改进的元参数计划。两个关键的元参数是参数更新的步长和梯度估计的批处理大小。通过对这些元参数的联合自适应选择,我们获得了具有单调改进保证的政策梯度算法。
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Adequately assigning credit to actions for future outcomes based on their contributions is a long-standing open challenge in Reinforcement Learning. The assumptions of the most commonly used credit assignment method are disadvantageous in tasks where the effects of decisions are not immediately evident. Furthermore, this method can only evaluate actions that have been selected by the agent, making it highly inefficient. Still, no alternative methods have been widely adopted in the field. Hindsight Credit Assignment is a promising, but still unexplored candidate, which aims to solve the problems of both long-term and counterfactual credit assignment. In this thesis, we empirically investigate Hindsight Credit Assignment to identify its main benefits, and key points to improve. Then, we apply it to factored state representations, and in particular to state representations based on the causal structure of the environment. In this setting, we propose a variant of Hindsight Credit Assignment that effectively exploits a given causal structure. We show that our modification greatly decreases the workload of Hindsight Credit Assignment, making it more efficient and enabling it to outperform the baseline credit assignment method on various tasks. This opens the way to other methods based on given or learned causal structures.
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Reinforcement learning (RL) gained considerable attention by creating decision-making agents that maximize rewards received from fully observable environments. However, many real-world problems are partially or noisily observable by nature, where agents do not receive the true and complete state of the environment. Such problems are formulated as partially observable Markov decision processes (POMDPs). Some studies applied RL to POMDPs by recalling previous decisions and observations or inferring the true state of the environment from received observations. Nevertheless, aggregating observations and decisions over time is impractical for environments with high-dimensional continuous state and action spaces. Moreover, so-called inference-based RL approaches require large number of samples to perform well since agents eschew uncertainty in the inferred state for the decision-making. Active inference is a framework that is naturally formulated in POMDPs and directs agents to select decisions by minimising expected free energy (EFE). This supplies reward-maximising (exploitative) behaviour in RL, with an information-seeking (exploratory) behaviour. Despite this exploratory behaviour of active inference, its usage is limited to discrete state and action spaces due to the computational difficulty of the EFE. We propose a unified principle for joint information-seeking and reward maximization that clarifies a theoretical connection between active inference and RL, unifies active inference and RL, and overcomes their aforementioned limitations. Our findings are supported by strong theoretical analysis. The proposed framework's superior exploration property is also validated by experimental results on partial observable tasks with high-dimensional continuous state and action spaces. Moreover, the results show that our model solves reward-free problems, making task reward design optional.
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我们考虑用于加强学习(RL)问题的模型 - 不可知的元学习(MAML)方法,其中目标是找到使用来自Markov决策过程(MDP)表示的多个任务的策略,该方法可以由随机的一步更新实现MDP的政策梯度。特别地,在MAML更新步骤中使用随机梯度对于RL问题至关重要,因为精确梯度的计算需要访问大量可能的轨迹。对于这种制剂,我们提出了一种名为随机梯度元增强学习(SG-MRL)的MAML方法的变型,并研究其收敛性。我们派生了SG-MRL的迭代和样本复杂性,以查找$ \ epsilon $ - 据我们所知,这为模型不可知的元增强学习算法提供了第一个收敛保证。我们进一步展示了我们的结果延伸到在测试时间使用多于一个随机政策梯度方法的情况的情况。最后,我们在几个深入的RL环境中凭证比较SG-MRL和MAML。
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This paper studies systematic exploration for reinforcement learning with rich observations and function approximation. We introduce a new model called contextual decision processes, that unifies and generalizes most prior settings. Our first contribution is a complexity measure, the Bellman rank , that we show enables tractable learning of near-optimal behavior in these processes and is naturally small for many well-studied reinforcement learning settings. Our second contribution is a new reinforcement learning algorithm that engages in systematic exploration to learn contextual decision processes with low Bellman rank. Our algorithm provably learns near-optimal behavior with a number of samples that is polynomial in all relevant parameters but independent of the number of unique observations. The approach uses Bellman error minimization with optimistic exploration and provides new insights into efficient exploration for reinforcement learning with function approximation.
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对于许多强化学习(RL)应用程序,指定奖励是困难的。本文考虑了一个RL设置,其中代理仅通过查询可以询问可以的专家来获取有关奖励的信息,例如,评估单个状态或通过轨迹提供二进制偏好。从如此昂贵的反馈中,我们的目标是学习奖励的模型,允许标准RL算法实现高预期的回报,尽可能少的专家查询。为此,我们提出了信息定向奖励学习(IDRL),它使用奖励的贝叶斯模型,然后选择要最大化信息增益的查询,这些查询是有关合理的最佳策略之间的返回差异的差异。与针对特定类型查询设计的先前主动奖励学习方法相比,IDRL自然地适应不同的查询类型。此外,它通过将焦点转移降低奖励近似误差来实现类似或更好的性能,从而降低奖励近似误差,以改善奖励模型引起的策略。我们支持我们的调查结果,在多个环境中进行广泛的评估,并具有不同的查询类型。
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In many sequential decision-making problems one is interested in minimizing an expected cumulative cost while taking into account risk, i.e., increased awareness of events of small probability and high consequences. Accordingly, the objective of this paper is to present efficient reinforcement learning algorithms for risk-constrained Markov decision processes (MDPs), where risk is represented via a chance constraint or a constraint on the conditional value-at-risk (CVaR) of the cumulative cost. We collectively refer to such problems as percentile risk-constrained MDPs. Specifically, we first derive a formula for computing the gradient of the Lagrangian function for percentile riskconstrained MDPs. Then, we devise policy gradient and actor-critic algorithms that (1) estimate such gradient, (2) update the policy in the descent direction, and (3) update the Lagrange multiplier in the ascent direction. For these algorithms we prove convergence to locally optimal policies. Finally, we demonstrate the effectiveness of our algorithms in an optimal stopping problem and an online marketing application.
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Effectively leveraging large, previously collected datasets in reinforcement learning (RL) is a key challenge for large-scale real-world applications. Offline RL algorithms promise to learn effective policies from previously-collected, static datasets without further interaction. However, in practice, offline RL presents a major challenge, and standard off-policy RL methods can fail due to overestimation of values induced by the distributional shift between the dataset and the learned policy, especially when training on complex and multi-modal data distributions. In this paper, we propose conservative Q-learning (CQL), which aims to address these limitations by learning a conservative Q-function such that the expected value of a policy under this Q-function lower-bounds its true value. We theoretically show that CQL produces a lower bound on the value of the current policy and that it can be incorporated into a policy learning procedure with theoretical improvement guarantees. In practice, CQL augments the standard Bellman error objective with a simple Q-value regularizer which is straightforward to implement on top of existing deep Q-learning and actor-critic implementations. On both discrete and continuous control domains, we show that CQL substantially outperforms existing offline RL methods, often learning policies that attain 2-5 times higher final return, especially when learning from complex and multi-modal data distributions.Preprint. Under review.
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由于策略梯度定理导致的策略设置存在各种理论上 - 声音策略梯度算法,其为梯度提供了简化的形式。然而,由于存在多重目标和缺乏明确的脱助政策政策梯度定理,截止策略设置不太明确。在这项工作中,我们将这些目标统一到一个违规目标,并为此统一目标提供了政策梯度定理。推导涉及强调的权重和利息职能。我们显示多种策略来近似梯度,以识别权重(ACE)称为Actor评论家的算法。我们证明了以前(半梯度)脱离政策演员 - 评论家 - 特别是offpac和DPG - 收敛到错误的解决方案,而Ace找到最佳解决方案。我们还强调为什么这些半梯度方法仍然可以在实践中表现良好,表明ace中的方差策略。我们经验研究了两个经典控制环境的若干ACE变体和基于图像的环境,旨在说明每个梯度近似的权衡。我们发现,通过直接逼近强调权重,ACE在所有测试的所有设置中执行或优于offpac。
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离线RL算法必须说明其提供的数据集可能使环境的许多方面未知。应对这一挑战的最常见方法是采用悲观或保守的方法,避免行为与培训数据集中的行为过于不同。但是,仅依靠保守主义存在缺点:绩效对保守主义的确切程度很敏感,保守的目标可以恢复高度最佳的政策。在这项工作中,我们建议在不确定性的情况下,脱机RL方法应该是适应性的。我们表明,在贝叶斯的意义上,在离线RL中最佳作用涉及解决隐式POMDP。结果,离线RL的最佳策略必须是自适应的,这不仅取决于当前状态,而且还取决于迄今为止在评估期间看到的所有过渡。我们提出了一种无模型的算法,用于近似于此最佳自适应策略,并证明在离线RL基准测试中学习此类适应性政策。
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具有很多玩家的非合作和合作游戏具有许多应用程序,但是当玩家数量增加时,通常仍然很棘手。由Lasry和Lions以及Huang,Caines和Malham \'E引入的,平均野外运动会(MFGS)依靠平均场外近似值,以使玩家数量可以成长为无穷大。解决这些游戏的传统方法通常依赖于以完全了解模型的了解来求解部分或随机微分方程。最近,增强学习(RL)似乎有望解决复杂问题。通过组合MFGS和RL,我们希望在人口规模和环境复杂性方面能够大规模解决游戏。在这项调查中,我们回顾了有关学习MFG中NASH均衡的最新文献。我们首先确定最常见的设置(静态,固定和进化)。然后,我们为经典迭代方法(基于最佳响应计算或策略评估)提供了一个通用框架,以确切的方式解决MFG。在这些算法和与马尔可夫决策过程的联系的基础上,我们解释了如何使用RL以无模型的方式学习MFG解决方案。最后,我们在基准问题上介绍了数值插图,并以某些视角得出结论。
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While reinforcement learning algorithms provide automated acquisition of optimal policies, practical application of such methods requires a number of design decisions, such as manually designing reward functions that not only define the task, but also provide sufficient shaping to accomplish it. In this paper, we view reinforcement learning as inferring policies that achieve desired outcomes, rather than as a problem of maximizing rewards. To solve this inference problem, we establish a novel variational inference formulation that allows us to derive a well-shaped reward function which can be learned directly from environment interactions. From the corresponding variational objective, we also derive a new probabilistic Bellman backup operator and use it to develop an off-policy algorithm to solve goal-directed tasks. We empirically demonstrate that this method eliminates the need to hand-craft reward functions for a suite of diverse manipulation and locomotion tasks and leads to effective goal-directed behaviors.
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科学和工程学的一个主要挑战是设计实验,以了解一些未知数的兴趣。经典的实验设计最佳地分配了实验预算,以最大程度地提高实用性概念(例如,降低对未知数量的不确定性)。我们考虑一个丰富的设置,其中实验与{\ em Markov链}中的状态相关联,我们只能通过选择控制状态转换的{\ em策略}来选择它们。该问题从勘探学习中的探索到空间监视任务,从而捕获了重要的应用。我们提出了一种算法 - \ textsc {markov-design} - 有效地选择了其测量分配\ emph {可证明收敛到最佳One}的策略。该算法在本质上是顺序的,可以调整其过去测量所告知的策略(实验)的选择。除了我们的理论分析外,我们还展示了我们在生态监测和药理学中应用的框架。
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强化学习和最近的深度增强学习是解决如Markov决策过程建模的顺序决策问题的流行方法。问题和选择算法和超参数的RL建模需要仔细考虑,因为不同的配置可能需要完全不同的性能。这些考虑因素主要是RL专家的任务;然而,RL在研究人员和系统设计师不是RL专家的其他领域中逐渐变得流行。此外,许多建模决策,例如定义状态和动作空间,批次的大小和批量更新的频率以及时间戳的数量通常是手动进行的。由于这些原因,RL框架的自动化不同组成部分具有重要意义,近年来它引起了很多关注。自动RL提供了一个框架,其中RL的不同组件包括MDP建模,算法选择和超参数优化是自动建模和定义的。在本文中,我们探讨了可以在自动化RL中使用的文献和目前的工作。此外,我们讨论了Autorl中的挑战,打开问题和研究方向。
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