超过三十年，研究人员已经开发和分析了潜伏树诱导的方法作为无监督句法解析的方法。尽管如此，与其监督的对应物相比，现代系统仍然不足以使其具有任何实际用途作为文本的结构注释。在这项工作中，我们提出了一种技术，该技术以跨度约束（即短语包围）的形式使用远端监督，以提高在无监督选项解析中的性能。使用相对少量的跨度约束，我们可以大大提高Diora的输出，这是一个已经竞争的无监督解析系统。与完整的解析树注释相比，可以通过最小的努力来获取跨度约束，例如使用从维基百科派生的词典，以查找确切的文本匹配。我们的实验显示了基于实体的跨度约束，提高了英语WSJ Penn TreeBank的选区分析超过5 F1。此外，我们的方法延伸到跨度约束易于实现的任何域，以及作为一个案例研究，我们通过从工艺数据集解析生物医学文本来证明其有效性。

通常认为语言模型能够编码语法[Tenney等，2019； Jawahar等，2019； Hewitt和Manning，2019]。在本文中，我们提出了UPOA，这是一种无监督的组成分析模型，该模型仅基于以验证的语言模型学习为跨度分割的句法距离，仅基于自我发挥的权重矩阵来计算出OUT关联得分。我们进一步提出了一个增强的版本UPIO，该版本利用了内部关联和外部关联得分来估计跨度的可能性。使用UPOA和UPIO的实验揭示了自我注意机制中查询和密钥的线性投影矩阵在解析中起重要作用。因此，我们将无监督的模型扩展到了几个射击模型（FPOA，FPIO），这些模型使用一些注释的树来学习更好的线性投影矩阵进行解析。宾夕法尼亚河岸上的实验表明，我们的无监督解析模型UPIO实现了与短句子（长度<= 10）相当的结果。我们的几个解析模型FPIO接受了仅20棵带注释的树木的训练，优于前几种镜头解析方法，该方法接受了50棵带注释的树木的训练。交叉解析的实验表明，无监督和少数解析方法都比SPMRL大多数语言的先前方法都更好[Seddah等，2013]。

The word alignment task, despite its prominence in the era of statistical machine translation (SMT), is niche and under-explored today. In this two-part tutorial, we argue for the continued relevance for word alignment. The first part provides a historical background to word alignment as a core component of the traditional SMT pipeline. We zero-in on GIZA++, an unsupervised, statistical word aligner with surprising longevity. Jumping forward to the era of neural machine translation (NMT), we show how insights from word alignment inspired the attention mechanism fundamental to present-day NMT. The second part shifts to a survey approach. We cover neural word aligners, showing the slow but steady progress towards surpassing GIZA++ performance. Finally, we cover the present-day applications of word alignment, from cross-lingual annotation projection, to improving translation.

Transformer-based models have pushed state of the art in many areas of NLP, but our understanding of what is behind their success is still limited. This paper is the first survey of over 150 studies of the popular BERT model. We review the current state of knowledge about how BERT works, what kind of information it learns and how it is represented, common modifications to its training objectives and architecture, the overparameterization issue and approaches to compression. We then outline directions for future research.

We propose a unified neural network architecture and learning algorithm that can be applied to various natural language processing tasks including: part-of-speech tagging, chunking, named entity recognition, and semantic role labeling. This versatility is achieved by trying to avoid task-specific engineering and therefore disregarding a lot of prior knowledge. Instead of exploiting man-made input features carefully optimized for each task, our system learns internal representations on the basis of vast amounts of mostly unlabeled training data. This work is then used as a basis for building a freely available tagging system with good performance and minimal computational requirements.

在本文中，我们试图通过引入深度学习模型的句法归纳偏见来建立两所学校之间的联系。我们提出了两个归纳偏见的家族，一个家庭用于选区结构，另一个用于依赖性结构。选区归纳偏见鼓励深度学习模型使用不同的单位（或神经元）分别处理长期和短期信息。这种分离为深度学习模型提供了一种方法，可以从顺序输入中构建潜在的层次表示形式，即更高级别的表示由高级表示形式组成，并且可以分解为一系列低级表示。例如，在不了解地面实际结构的情况下，我们提出的模型学会通过根据其句法结构组成变量和运算符的表示来处理逻辑表达。另一方面，依赖归纳偏置鼓励模型在输入序列中找到实体之间的潜在关系。对于自然语言，潜在关系通常被建模为一个定向依赖图，其中一个单词恰好具有一个父节点和零或几个孩子的节点。将此约束应用于类似变压器的模型之后，我们发现该模型能够诱导接近人类专家注释的有向图，并且在不同任务上也优于标准变压器模型。我们认为，这些实验结果为深度学习模型的未来发展展示了一个有趣的选择。

许多自然语言处理任务，例如核心解决方案和语义角色标签，都需要选择文本跨度并就其做出决定。此类任务的典型方法是为所有可能的跨度评分，并贪婪地选择特定任务的下游处理的跨度。然而，这种方法并未纳入有关应选择哪种跨度的诱导偏见，例如，选定的跨度倾向于是句法成分。在本文中，我们提出了一种新型的基于语法的结构化选择模型，该模型学会了利用为此类问题提供的部分跨度注释。与以前的方法相比，我们的方法摆脱了启发式贪婪的跨度选择方案，使我们能够在一组最佳跨度上对下游任务进行建模。我们在两个流行的跨度预测任务上评估我们的模型：核心分辨率和语义角色标签。我们对两者都展示了经验改进。

我们提出了一个新的框架，在增强的自然语言（TANL）之间的翻译，解决了许多结构化预测语言任务，包括联合实体和关系提取，嵌套命名实体识别，关系分类，语义角色标记，事件提取，COREREFED分辨率和对话状态追踪。通过培训特定于特定于任务的鉴别分类器来说，我们将其作为一种在增强的自然语言之间的翻译任务，而不是通过培训问题，而不是解决问题，而是可以轻松提取任务相关信息。我们的方法可以匹配或优于所有任务的特定于任务特定模型，特别是在联合实体和关系提取（Conll04，Ade，NYT和ACE2005数据集）上实现了新的最先进的结果，与关系分类（偶尔和默示）和语义角色标签（Conll-2005和Conll-2012）。我们在使用相同的架构和超参数的同时为所有任务使用相同的架构和超级参数，甚至在培训单个模型时同时解决所有任务（多任务学习）。最后，我们表明，由于更好地利用标签语义，我们的框架也可以显着提高低资源制度的性能。

Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) is the task of automatically detecting and correcting errors in text. The task not only includes the correction of grammatical errors, such as missing prepositions and mismatched subject-verb agreement, but also orthographic and semantic errors, such as misspellings and word choice errors respectively. The field has seen significant progress in the last decade, motivated in part by a series of five shared tasks, which drove the development of rule-based methods, statistical classifiers, statistical machine translation, and finally neural machine translation systems which represent the current dominant state of the art. In this survey paper, we condense the field into a single article and first outline some of the linguistic challenges of the task, introduce the most popular datasets that are available to researchers (for both English and other languages), and summarise the various methods and techniques that have been developed with a particular focus on artificial error generation. We next describe the many different approaches to evaluation as well as concerns surrounding metric reliability, especially in relation to subjective human judgements, before concluding with an overview of recent progress and suggestions for future work and remaining challenges. We hope that this survey will serve as comprehensive resource for researchers who are new to the field or who want to be kept apprised of recent developments.

数据饥饿的深度神经网络已经将自己作为许多NLP任务的标准建立为包括传统序列标记的标准。尽管他们在高资源语言上表现最先进的表现，但它们仍然落后于低资源场景的统计计数器。一个方法来反击攻击此问题是文本增强，即，从现有数据生成新的合成训练数据点。虽然NLP最近目睹了一种文本增强技术的负载，但该领域仍然缺乏对多种语言和序列标记任务的系统性能分析。为了填补这一差距，我们调查了三类文本增强方法，其在语法（例如，裁剪子句子），令牌（例如，随机字插入）和字符（例如，字符交换）级别上执行更改。我们系统地将它们与语音标记，依赖解析和语义角色标记的分组进行了比较，用于使用各种模型的各种语言系列，包括依赖于诸如MBERT的普赖金的多语言语境化语言模型的架构。增强最显着改善了解析，然后是语音标记和语义角色标记的依赖性解析。我们发现实验技术通常在形态上丰富的语言，而不是越南语等分析语言。我们的研究结果表明，增强技术可以进一步改善基于MBERT的强基线。我们将字符级方法标识为最常见的表演者，而同义词替换和语法增强仪提供不一致的改进。最后，我们讨论了最大依赖于任务，语言对和模型类型的结果。

The rapid advancement of AI technology has made text generation tools like GPT-3 and ChatGPT increasingly accessible, scalable, and effective. This can pose serious threat to the credibility of various forms of media if these technologies are used for plagiarism, including scientific literature and news sources. Despite the development of automated methods for paraphrase identification, detecting this type of plagiarism remains a challenge due to the disparate nature of the datasets on which these methods are trained. In this study, we review traditional and current approaches to paraphrase identification and propose a refined typology of paraphrases. We also investigate how this typology is represented in popular datasets and how under-representation of certain types of paraphrases impacts detection capabilities. Finally, we outline new directions for future research and datasets in the pursuit of more effective paraphrase detection using AI.

Transfer learning, where a model is first pre-trained on a data-rich task before being finetuned on a downstream task, has emerged as a powerful technique in natural language processing (NLP). The effectiveness of transfer learning has given rise to a diversity of approaches, methodology, and practice. In this paper, we explore the landscape of transfer learning techniques for NLP by introducing a unified framework that converts all text-based language problems into a text-to-text format. Our systematic study compares pre-training objectives, architectures, unlabeled data sets, transfer approaches, and other factors on dozens of language understanding tasks. By combining the insights from our exploration with scale and our new "Colossal Clean Crawled Corpus", we achieve state-of-the-art results on many benchmarks covering summarization, question answering, text classification, and more. To facilitate future work on transfer learning for NLP, we release our data set, pre-trained models, and code.

命名实体识别（ner）是从文本中提取特定类型的命名实体的任务。当前的NER模型往往依赖于人类注释的数据集，要求在目标领域和实体上广泛参与专业知识。这项工作介绍了一个询问生成的方法，它通过询问反映实体类型的需求的简单自然语言问题来自动生成NER数据集（例如，哪种疾病？）到开放式域问题应答系统。不使用任何域中资源（即，培训句子，标签或域名词典），我们的模型在我们生成的数据集上仅培训了，这在很大程度上超过了四个不同域的六个基准测试的弱势监督模型。令人惊讶的是，在NCBI疾病中，我们的模型达到75.5 F1得分，甚至优于以前的最佳弱监督模型4.1 F1得分，它利用域专家提供的丰富的域名词典。制定具有自然语言的NER的需求，也允许我们为诸如奖项等细粒度实体类型构建NER模型，其中我们的模型甚至优于完全监督模型。在三个少量的NER基准测试中，我们的模型实现了新的最先进的性能。

由于结构化数据通常不足，因此在开发用于临床信息检索和决策支持系统模型时，需要从电子健康记录中的自由文本中提取标签。临床文本中最重要的上下文特性之一是否定，这表明没有发现。我们旨在通过比较荷兰临床注释中的三种否定检测方法来改善标签的大规模提取。我们使用Erasmus医疗中心荷兰临床语料库比较了基于ContextD的基于规则的方法，即使用MEDCAT和（Fineted）基于Roberta的模型的BilstM模型。我们发现，Bilstm和Roberta模型都在F1得分，精度和召回方面始终优于基于规则的模型。此外，我们将每个模型的分类错误系统地分类，这些错误可用于进一步改善特定应用程序的模型性能。在性能方面，将三个模型结合起来并不有益。我们得出的结论是，尤其是基于Bilstm和Roberta的模型在检测临床否定方面非常准确，但是最终，根据手头的用例，这三种方法最终都可以可行。

Relation extraction (RE) is a sub-discipline of information extraction (IE) which focuses on the prediction of a relational predicate from a natural-language input unit (such as a sentence, a clause, or even a short paragraph consisting of multiple sentences and/or clauses). Together with named-entity recognition (NER) and disambiguation (NED), RE forms the basis for many advanced IE tasks such as knowledge-base (KB) population and verification. In this work, we explore how recent approaches for open information extraction (OpenIE) may help to improve the task of RE by encoding structured information about the sentences' principal units, such as subjects, objects, verbal phrases, and adverbials, into various forms of vectorized (and hence unstructured) representations of the sentences. Our main conjecture is that the decomposition of long and possibly convoluted sentences into multiple smaller clauses via OpenIE even helps to fine-tune context-sensitive language models such as BERT (and its plethora of variants) for RE. Our experiments over two annotated corpora, KnowledgeNet and FewRel, demonstrate the improved accuracy of our enriched models compared to existing RE approaches. Our best results reach 92% and 71% of F1 score for KnowledgeNet and FewRel, respectively, proving the effectiveness of our approach on competitive benchmarks.

虽然以完全可差异的模型的端到端学习在自然语言过程（NLP）和机器学习中取得了巨大的成功，但最近的近期兴趣与潜在的离散结构一起学习以改善最新的最终任务性能和更好的归纳偏差更好的解释性。然而，该范例并不直接地适应主流梯度的优化方法。这项工作调查了三个主要的方法来学习此类模型：通过采样，替代梯度，连续放松和边缘似然最大化。我们结束了对这些方法的应用以及检查他们诱导的学习潜在结构的检查。

Translating training data into many languages has emerged as a practical solution for improving cross-lingual transfer. For tasks that involve span-level annotations, such as information extraction or question answering, an additional label projection step is required to map annotated spans onto the translated texts. Recently, a few efforts have utilized a simple mark-then-translate method to jointly perform translation and projection by inserting special markers around the labeled spans in the original sentence. However, as far as we are aware, no empirical analysis has been conducted on how this approach compares to traditional annotation projection based on word alignment. In this paper, we present an extensive empirical study across 42 languages and three tasks (QA, NER, and Event Extraction) to evaluate the effectiveness and limitations of both methods, filling an important gap in the literature. Experimental results show that our optimized version of mark-then-translate, which we call EasyProject, is easily applied to many languages and works surprisingly well, outperforming the more complex word alignment-based methods. We analyze several key factors that affect end-task performance, and show EasyProject works well because it can accurately preserve label span boundaries after translation. We will publicly release all our code and data.

命名实体识别是一项信息提取任务，可作为其他自然语言处理任务的预处理步骤，例如机器翻译，信息检索和问题答案。命名实体识别能够识别专有名称以及开放域文本中的时间和数字表达式。对于诸如阿拉伯语，阿姆哈拉语和希伯来语之类的闪族语言，由于这些语言的结构严重变化，指定的实体识别任务更具挑战性。在本文中，我们提出了一个基于双向长期记忆的Amharic命名实体识别系统，并带有条件随机字段层。我们注释了一种新的Amharic命名实体识别数据集（8,070个句子，具有182,691个令牌），并将合成少数群体过度采样技术应用于我们的数据集，以减轻不平衡的分类问题。我们命名的实体识别系统的F_1得分为93％，这是Amharic命名实体识别的新最新结果。

在这项工作中，我们探索如何学习专用的语言模型，旨在学习从文本文件中学习关键词的丰富表示。我们在判别和生成设置中进行预训练变压器语言模型（LMS）的不同掩蔽策略。在歧视性设定中，我们引入了一种新的预训练目标 - 关键边界，用替换（kbir）infifiling，在使用Kbir预先训练的LM进行微调时显示出在Sota上的性能（F1中高达9.26点）的大量增益关键酶提取的任务。在生成设置中，我们为BART - 键盘介绍了一个新的预训练设置，可再现与CATSeq格式中的输入文本相关的关键字，而不是Denoised原始输入。这也导致在关键词中的性能（F1 @ M）中的性能（高达4.33点），用于关键正版生成。此外，我们还微调了在命名实体识别（ner），问题应答（qa），关系提取（重新），抽象摘要和达到与SOTA的可比性表现的预训练的语言模型，表明学习丰富的代表关键词确实有利于许多其他基本的NLP任务。

数据增强是通过转换为机器学习的人工创建数据的人工创建，是一个跨机器学习学科的研究领域。尽管它对于增加模型的概括功能很有用，但它还可以解决许多其他挑战和问题，从克服有限的培训数据到正规化目标到限制用于保护隐私的数据的数量。基于对数据扩展的目标和应用的精确描述以及现有作品的分类法，该调查涉及用于文本分类的数据增强方法，并旨在为研究人员和从业者提供简洁而全面的概述。我们将100多种方法划分为12种不同的分组，并提供最先进的参考文献来阐述哪种方法可以通过将它们相互关联，从而阐述了哪种方法。最后，提供可能构成未来工作的基础的研究观点。