预测未来的世界事件是一项具有挑战性但有价值的任务。对气候,地缘政治冲突,大流行和经济指标的预测有助于塑造政策和决策。在这些领域中,专家人类的判断有助于最佳预测。鉴于语言建模的进步,这些预测可以自动化吗?为此,我们介绍了AutoCast,这是一个包含数千个预测问题和随附的新闻语料库的数据集。问题来自预测锦标赛,确保高质量,现实世界中的重要性和多样性。新闻语料库是按日期组织的,使我们能够精确模拟人类过去的预测(避免将来泄漏)的条件。我们的动机是由于数量级的预测数字的难度(例如,2022年的Covid-19的全球案例),我们还策划了Intervalqa,这是数值问题和校准的数值问题和指标的数据集。我们在预测任务上测试语言模型,并发现绩效远低于人类专家基线。但是,随着新闻语料库中相关信息的合并,绩效提高了绩效。总而言之,AutoCast对大型语言模型提出了一个新颖的挑战,并提高了性能可能会带来很大的实际收益。
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人工智能(AI)有可能极大地改善社会,但是与任何强大的技术一样,它的风险和责任也增加。当前的AI研究缺乏有关如何管理AI系统(包括投机性长期风险)的长尾风险的系统讨论。请记住,AI可能是提高人类的长期潜力不可或缺的一部分,人们担心建立更聪明,更强大的AI系统最终可能会导致比我们更强大的系统。有人说这就像玩火,并推测这可能会造成生存风险(X风险)。为了增加这些讨论,我们回顾了来自危害分析和系统安全的时间测试概念的集合,这些概念旨在将大型流程引导到更安全的方向上。然后,我们讨论AI研究人员如何对AI系统的安全产生长期影响。最后,我们讨论如何稳健地塑造将影响安全和一般能力之间平衡的过程。
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机器学习(ML)系统的大小迅速增加,正在获取新功能,并且越来越多地部署在高赌注设置中。与其他强大的技术一样,ML的安全应成为主要的研究优先权。为了应对ML的新兴安全挑战,例如由最近的大型模型引入的策略,我们为ML安全提供了新的路线图,并完善了现场需要解决的技术问题。我们为研究提供了四项问题,即危害危险(“鲁棒性”),识别危险(“监测”),转向ML系统(“对齐”),减少部署危险(“外部安全性”)。在整个过程中,我们澄清了每个问题的动机并提供了具体的研究方向。
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We demonstrate that scaling up language models greatly improves task-agnostic, few-shot performance, sometimes even becoming competitive with prior state-ofthe-art fine-tuning approaches. Specifically, we train GPT-3, an autoregressive language model with 175 billion parameters, 10x more than any previous nonsparse language model, and test its performance in the few-shot setting. For all tasks, GPT-3 is applied without any gradient updates or fine-tuning, with tasks and few-shot demonstrations specified purely via text interaction with the model. GPT-3 achieves strong performance on many NLP datasets, including translation, question-answering, and cloze tasks. We also identify some datasets where GPT-3's few-shot learning still struggles, as well as some datasets where GPT-3 faces methodological issues related to training on large web corpora.
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我们研究语言模型是否可以评估自己主张的有效性,并预测他们能够正确回答的问题。我们首先表明,当以正确的格式提供时,较大的模型在多样化的多项选择和True/False问题上进行了很好的校准。因此,我们可以通过要求模型首先提出答案,然后评估其答案正确的概率“ p(true)”来对开放式采样任务进行自我评估。我们发现在各种任务中,P(true)的表现,校准和缩放令人鼓舞。当我们允许模型考虑自己的许多样本之前,在预测一种特定可能性的有效性之前,自我评估的性能进一步改善。接下来,我们研究是否可以培训模型来预测“ P(ik)”,即“我知道”问题的概率,而无需参考任何特定提出的答案。模型在预测P(IK)方面表现良好,并且在跨任务中部分概括,尽管它们在新任务上的P(IK)校准方面遇到了困难。预测的p(IK)概率在存在相关的原始材料的情况下以及对数学单词问题解决方案的提示也适当增加。我们希望这些观察结果为培训更诚实的模型提供了基础,并研究了诚实对模型模仿人类写作以外的其他目标培训的案例的普遍性。
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COVID-19的大流行提出了对多个领域决策者的流行预测的重要性,从公共卫生到整个经济。虽然预测流行进展经常被概念化为类似于天气预测,但是它具有一些关键的差异,并且仍然是一项非平凡的任务。疾病的传播受到人类行为,病原体动态,天气和环境条件的多种混杂因素的影响。由于政府公共卫生和资助机构的倡议,捕获以前无法观察到的方面的丰富数据来源的可用性增加了研究的兴趣。这尤其是在“以数据为中心”的解决方案上进行的一系列工作,这些解决方案通过利用非传统数据源以及AI和机器学习的最新创新来增强我们的预测能力的潜力。这项调查研究了各种数据驱动的方法论和实践进步,并介绍了一个概念框架来导航它们。首先,我们列举了与流行病预测相关的大量流行病学数据集和新的数据流,捕获了各种因素,例如有症状的在线调查,零售和商业,流动性,基因组学数据等。接下来,我们将讨论关注最近基于数据驱动的统计和深度学习方法的方法和建模范式,以及将机械模型知识域知识与统计方法的有效性和灵活性相结合的新型混合模型类别。我们还讨论了这些预测系统的现实部署中出现的经验和挑战,包括预测信息。最后,我们重点介绍了整个预测管道中发现的一些挑战和开放问题。
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我们介绍了Sparrow,这是一个寻求信息的对话代理,与提示的语言模型基线相比,训练有素,更有帮助,正确和无害。我们使用从人类反馈中的强化学习来培训我们的模型,以帮助人类评估者判断代理人的行为。首先,为了使我们的代理人更有帮助和无害,我们将良好对话的要求分解为代理人应遵循的自然语言规则,并分别向评估者询问每个规则。我们证明,这种崩溃使我们能够收集对代理行为的更多针对性的人类判断,并允许更有效的规则条件奖励模型。其次,我们的代理商在收集对模型声明的偏好判决时提供了支持事实主张的来源的证据。对于事实问题,麻雀提供的证据支持了78%的时间。比基线比基线更享受麻雀,同时对人类的对抗性探测更具弹性,在探测时只有8%的时间违反了我们的规则。最后,我们进行了广泛的分析,表明尽管我们的模型学会遵守我们的规则,但它可以表现出分布偏见。
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我们表明,GPT-3模型可以学会在不使用模型逻辑的情况下以自然语言来表达其自然语言答案的不确定性。当提出问题时,该模型同时产生答案和信心水平(例如“ 90%的置信度”或“高信心”)。这些级别映射到经过校准的概率。该模型在分配转移下还保持适度的校准,并且对自己的答案中的不确定性敏感,而不是模仿人类的例子。据我们所知,这是第一次证明模型对其自然语言的答案表达了校准的不确定性。为了测试校准,我们介绍了校准任务套件。我们比较了用单词(“语言概率”)表达的不确定性的校准与从模型逻辑提取的不确定性。两种不确定性都能够在分布变化下概括校准。我们还提供了证据表明,GPT-3概括校准的能力取决于预先训练的潜在表示,这些表征与其答案上的认知不确定性相关。
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预测组合在预测社区中蓬勃发展,近年来,已经成为预测研究和活动主流的一部分。现在,由单个(目标)系列产生的多个预测组合通过整合来自不同来源收集的信息,从而提高准确性,从而减轻了识别单个“最佳”预测的风险。组合方案已从没有估计的简单组合方法演变为涉及时间变化的权重,非线性组合,组件之间的相关性和交叉学习的复杂方法。它们包括结合点预测和结合概率预测。本文提供了有关预测组合的广泛文献的最新评论,并参考可用的开源软件实施。我们讨论了各种方法的潜在和局限性,并突出了这些思想如何随着时间的推移而发展。还调查了有关预测组合实用性的一些重要问题。最后,我们以当前的研究差距和未来研究的潜在见解得出结论。
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State-of-the-art computer vision systems are trained to predict a fixed set of predetermined object categories. This restricted form of supervision limits their generality and usability since additional labeled data is needed to specify any other visual concept. Learning directly from raw text about images is a promising alternative which leverages a much broader source of supervision. We demonstrate that the simple pre-training task of predicting which caption goes with which image is an efficient and scalable way to learn SOTA image representations from scratch on a dataset of 400 million (image, text) pairs collected from the internet. After pre-training, natural language is used to reference learned visual concepts (or describe new ones) enabling zero-shot transfer of the model to downstream tasks. We study the performance of this approach by benchmarking on over 30 different existing computer vision datasets, spanning tasks such as OCR, action recognition in videos, geo-localization, and many types of fine-grained object classification. The model transfers non-trivially to most tasks and is often competitive with a fully supervised baseline without the need for any dataset specific training. For instance, we match the accuracy of the original ResNet-50 on ImageNet zero-shot without needing to use any of the 1.28 million training examples it was trained on. We release our code and pre-trained model weights at https://github.com/OpenAI/CLIP.
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As language models (LMs) scale, they develop many novel behaviors, good and bad, exacerbating the need to evaluate how they behave. Prior work creates evaluations with crowdwork (which is time-consuming and expensive) or existing data sources (which are not always available). Here, we automatically generate evaluations with LMs. We explore approaches with varying amounts of human effort, from instructing LMs to write yes/no questions to making complex Winogender schemas with multiple stages of LM-based generation and filtering. Crowdworkers rate the examples as highly relevant and agree with 90-100% of labels, sometimes more so than corresponding human-written datasets. We generate 154 datasets and discover new cases of inverse scaling where LMs get worse with size. Larger LMs repeat back a dialog user's preferred answer ("sycophancy") and express greater desire to pursue concerning goals like resource acquisition and goal preservation. We also find some of the first examples of inverse scaling in RL from Human Feedback (RLHF), where more RLHF makes LMs worse. For example, RLHF makes LMs express stronger political views (on gun rights and immigration) and a greater desire to avoid shut down. Overall, LM-written evaluations are high-quality and let us quickly discover many novel LM behaviors.
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大型语言模型在各种任务上显示出令人印象深刻的几次结果。但是,当知识是此类结果的关键时,就像问题回答和事实检查之类的任务一样,似乎需要存储知识的大量参数计数。众所周知,检索增强模型可以在不需要多个参数的情况下在知识密集的任务上表现出色,但是目前尚不清楚它们是否在几个弹药设置中工作。在这项工作中,我们介绍了地图集,这是一个经过精心设计和预先训练的增强语言模型,能够通过很少的培训示例学习知识密集型任务。我们对包括MMLU,苏格兰短裙和归类等各种任务进行评估,并研究文档索引内容的影响,表明它可以很容易地进行更新。值得注意的是,在自然问题上仅使用64个示例在自然问题上达到超过42 \%的准确性,尽管参数少了50倍,但比540B参数模型的表现优于540b参数模型。
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Developing safe and useful general-purpose AI systems will require us to make progress on scalable oversight: the problem of supervising systems that potentially outperform us on most skills relevant to the task at hand. Empirical work on this problem is not straightforward, since we do not yet have systems that broadly exceed our abilities. This paper discusses one of the major ways we think about this problem, with a focus on how to turn it into one that can be productively studied empirically. We first present an experimental design centered on choosing tasks for which human specialists succeed but unaided humans and current general AI systems fail. We then present a proof-of-concept experiment following meant to demonstrate a key feature of this experimental design and show its viability with two question-answering tasks: MMLU and time-limited QuALITY. On these tasks, we find that human participants who interact with an unreliable large-language-model dialog assistant through chat -- a trivial baseline strategy for scalable oversight -- substantially outperform both the model alone and their own unaided performance. These results are an encouraging sign that scalable oversight will be tractable to study with present models and bolster recent findings that large language models can productively assist humans with difficult tasks.
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如果未来的AI系统在新的情况下是可靠的安全性,那么他们将需要纳入指导它们的一般原则,以便强烈地认识到哪些结果和行为将是有害的。这样的原则可能需要得到约束力的监管制度的支持,该法规需要广泛接受的基本原则。它们还应该足够具体用于技术实施。本文从法律中汲取灵感,解释了负面的人权如何履行此类原则的作用,并为国际监管制度以及为未来的AI系统建立技术安全限制的基础。
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Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated impressive capabilities in natural language understanding and generation, but the quality bar for medical and clinical applications is high. Today, attempts to assess models' clinical knowledge typically rely on automated evaluations on limited benchmarks. There is no standard to evaluate model predictions and reasoning across a breadth of tasks. To address this, we present MultiMedQA, a benchmark combining six existing open question answering datasets spanning professional medical exams, research, and consumer queries; and HealthSearchQA, a new free-response dataset of medical questions searched online. We propose a framework for human evaluation of model answers along multiple axes including factuality, precision, possible harm, and bias. In addition, we evaluate PaLM (a 540-billion parameter LLM) and its instruction-tuned variant, Flan-PaLM, on MultiMedQA. Using a combination of prompting strategies, Flan-PaLM achieves state-of-the-art accuracy on every MultiMedQA multiple-choice dataset (MedQA, MedMCQA, PubMedQA, MMLU clinical topics), including 67.6% accuracy on MedQA (US Medical License Exam questions), surpassing prior state-of-the-art by over 17%. However, human evaluation reveals key gaps in Flan-PaLM responses. To resolve this we introduce instruction prompt tuning, a parameter-efficient approach for aligning LLMs to new domains using a few exemplars. The resulting model, Med-PaLM, performs encouragingly, but remains inferior to clinicians. We show that comprehension, recall of knowledge, and medical reasoning improve with model scale and instruction prompt tuning, suggesting the potential utility of LLMs in medicine. Our human evaluations reveal important limitations of today's models, reinforcing the importance of both evaluation frameworks and method development in creating safe, helpful LLM models for clinical applications.
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随着人工智能系统变得越来越强大和普遍,人们对机器的道德或缺乏道德的关注变得越来越关注。然而,向机器讲授道德是一项艰巨的任务,因为道德仍然是人类中最激烈的争论问题之一,更不用说AI了。但是,部署到数百万用户的现有AI系统已经在做出充满道德影响的决策,这构成了一个看似不可能的挑战:教学机器的道德意义,而人类继续努力努力。为了探索这一挑战,我们介绍了Delphi,这是一个基于深层神经网络的实验框架,直接训练了描述性道德判断,例如,“帮助朋友”通常是不错的,而“帮助朋友传播假新闻”不是。经验结果提供了对机器伦理的承诺和局限性的新见解。面对新的道德情况,德尔菲(Delphi)表现出强大的概括能力,而现成的神经网络模型表现出明显差的判断,包括不公正的偏见,证实了对明确教学机器的道德意义的必要性。然而,德尔菲并不完美,表现出对普遍性偏见和不一致的敏感性。尽管如此,我们还是展示了不完美的Delphi的积极用例,包括在其他不完美的AI系统中将其用作组件模型。重要的是,我们根据著名的道德理论来解释Delphi的运营化,这使我们提出了重要的未来研究问题。
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We are currently unable to specify human goals and societal values in a way that reliably directs AI behavior. Law-making and legal interpretation form a computational engine that converts opaque human values into legible directives. "Law Informs Code" is the research agenda capturing complex computational legal processes, and embedding them in AI. Similar to how parties to a legal contract cannot foresee every potential contingency of their future relationship, and legislators cannot predict all the circumstances under which their proposed bills will be applied, we cannot ex ante specify rules that provably direct good AI behavior. Legal theory and practice have developed arrays of tools to address these specification problems. For instance, legal standards allow humans to develop shared understandings and adapt them to novel situations. In contrast to more prosaic uses of the law (e.g., as a deterrent of bad behavior through the threat of sanction), leveraged as an expression of how humans communicate their goals, and what society values, Law Informs Code. We describe how data generated by legal processes (methods of law-making, statutory interpretation, contract drafting, applications of legal standards, legal reasoning, etc.) can facilitate the robust specification of inherently vague human goals. This increases human-AI alignment and the local usefulness of AI. Toward society-AI alignment, we present a framework for understanding law as the applied philosophy of multi-agent alignment. Although law is partly a reflection of historically contingent political power - and thus not a perfect aggregation of citizen preferences - if properly parsed, its distillation offers the most legitimate computational comprehension of societal values available. If law eventually informs powerful AI, engaging in the deliberative political process to improve law takes on even more meaning.
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鉴于大型语言模型的广泛能力,应该有可能朝着一般的文本的助手工作,这些助手与人类价值一致,这意味着它是有帮助,诚实的和无害的。在此方向上的初始遗传,我们研究简单的基线技术和评估,例如提示。我们发现,从模型规模增加适度的干预措施的好处,概括为各种对准评估,并不会损害大型模型的性能。接下来,我们调查与对齐,比较仿制,二进制歧视和排名偏好建模相关的几个培训目标的缩放趋势。我们发现排名优先级模型比模仿学习更好地表现得多,并且通常以模型大小更有利地缩放。相比之下,二进制歧视通常与模仿学习非常类似地执行和缩放。最后,我们研究了一种“偏好模型预训练阶段的培训阶段,其目的是在对人偏好的芬明时提高样本效率。
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我们调整了大型语言模型,以使用行为克隆来编写自然语言批评(自然语言批判性评论)。关于基于主题的摘要任务,我们的模型所写的批评帮助人类在摘要中发现了本来会错过的漏洞。我们的模型有助于在模型和人类书面摘要中发现自然存在的缺陷,以及人类撰写的摘要中有意误导的摘要中的缺陷。我们研究批评的缩放特性,包括基于主题的汇总和合成任务。较大的模型写出更多有用的批评,在大多数任务上,尽管产生了更困难的输出,但在大多数任务上都更好地进行了自我关注。较大的模型还可以将自己的自我批评纳入反馈,将自己的摘要完善为更好的摘要。最后,我们激励并引入了一个框架,以比较批评能力的产生和歧视能力。我们的测量表明,即使是大型模型也可能仍然具有他们无法或不表达为批评的相关知识。这些结果是使用AI辅助的人类反馈来扩展机器学习系统的监督到人类直接评估的任务的概念证明。我们释放培训数据集以及批评援助实验的样本。
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我们微调GPT-3使用基于文本的Web浏览环境来回答长形问题,允许模型搜索和导航Web。通过建立任务,以便通过人类执行,我们能够使用模仿学习培训在任务上的模型,然后通过人体反馈优化答案质量。为了使人为评估事实精度更容易,模型必须在浏览支持答案时收集引用。我们在ELI5上培训并评估我们的模型,Reddit用户提出的问题数据集。我们的最佳模型是通过使用行为克隆进行微调GPT-3获得的,然后对训练训练的奖励模型进行拒绝采样来获得以预测人类偏好。这种模式的答案是人类56%的答案,我们的人类示威者的时间和69%的时间到Reddit的最高投票答复。
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