几乎没有射击的内在学习（ICL）使预训练的语言模型能够通过为输入的一部分提供少量的培训示例来执行以前的任务，而无需任何基于梯度的培训。 ICL会产生大量的计算，内存和存储成本，因为它每次进行预测时都涉及处理所有培训示例。参数有效的微调（PEFT）（例如，适配器模块，提示调谐，稀疏更新方法等）提供了替代范式，其中训练了一组少量参数以启用模型来执行新任务。在本文中，我们严格地比较了几个ICL和PEFT，并证明后者提供了更好的准确性，并大大降低了计算成本。在此过程中，我们引入了一种称为（IA）$^3 $的新PEFT方法，该方法通过学习的向量来扩展激活，从而获得更强的性能，同时仅引入相对少量的新参数。我们还提出了一个基于称为T-FEW的T0模型的简单食谱，可以将其应用于新任务，而无需特定于任务的调整或修改。我们通过将T-FEW应用于木筏基准，首次实现超人性能，并以6％的绝对性能优于最先进的方法来验证T-FEW对完全看不见的任务的有效性。我们实验中使用的所有代码均可公开使用。

In this work, we explore "prompt tuning," a simple yet effective mechanism for learning "soft prompts" to condition frozen language models to perform specific downstream tasks. Unlike the discrete text prompts used by GPT-3, soft prompts are learned through backpropagation and can be tuned to incorporate signals from any number of labeled examples. Our end-to-end learned approach outperforms GPT-3's few-shot learning by a large margin. More remarkably, through ablations on model size using T5, we show that prompt tuning becomes more competitive with scale: as models exceed billions of parameters, our method "closes the gap" and matches the strong performance of model tuning (where all model weights are tuned). This finding is especially relevant because large models are costly to share and serve and the ability to reuse one frozen model for multiple downstream tasks can ease this burden. Our method can be seen as a simplification of the recently proposed "prefix tuning" of Li and Liang (2021) and we provide a comparison to this and other similar approaches. Finally, we show that conditioning a frozen model with soft prompts confers benefits in robustness to domain transfer and enables efficient "prompt ensembling." * Work done as a Google AI Resident.

Transfer learning, where a model is first pre-trained on a data-rich task before being finetuned on a downstream task, has emerged as a powerful technique in natural language processing (NLP). The effectiveness of transfer learning has given rise to a diversity of approaches, methodology, and practice. In this paper, we explore the landscape of transfer learning techniques for NLP by introducing a unified framework that converts all text-based language problems into a text-to-text format. Our systematic study compares pre-training objectives, architectures, unlabeled data sets, transfer approaches, and other factors on dozens of language understanding tasks. By combining the insights from our exploration with scale and our new "Colossal Clean Crawled Corpus", we achieve state-of-the-art results on many benchmarks covering summarization, question answering, text classification, and more. To facilitate future work on transfer learning for NLP, we release our data set, pre-trained models, and code.

大型语言模型在各种任务上显示出令人印象深刻的几次结果。但是，当知识是此类结果的关键时，就像问题回答和事实检查之类的任务一样，似乎需要存储知识的大量参数计数。众所周知，检索增强模型可以在不需要多个参数的情况下在知识密集的任务上表现出色，但是目前尚不清楚它们是否在几个弹药设置中工作。在这项工作中，我们介绍了地图集，这是一个经过精心设计和预先训练的增强语言模型，能够通过很少的培训示例学习知识密集型任务。我们对包括MMLU，苏格兰短裙和归类等各种任务进行评估，并研究文档索引内容的影响，表明它可以很容易地进行更新。值得注意的是，在自然问题上仅使用64个示例在自然问题上达到超过42 \％的准确性，尽管参数少了50倍，但比540B参数模型的表现优于540b参数模型。

专家层（MOES）的混合物通过条件计算实现语言模型的高效缩放。本文提出了一个详细的实证研究，自回归鞋语言模型与广泛的设置中的密集模型相比：在域外语言建模，零和少量射击和全部微调。除了微调外，我们发现Moes基本上更加计算效率。在更适度的培训预算下，MOES可以使用$ \ SIM值4倍的计算，符合密集模型的性能。该差距在比例下变窄，但我们最大的MOE模型（1.1T参数）始终如一地优于计算等效的密集模型（6.7b参数）。总体而言，这种表现差距在任务和域中有很大差异，表明MOE和密集模型以不值得研究的方式概括不同的方式。我们使我们的代码和模型公开可用于研究使用。

Recent NLP models have the great ability to generalise `zero-shot' to new tasks using only an instruction as guidance. However, these approaches usually repeat their instructions with every input, requiring costly reprocessing of lengthy instructions for every inference example. To alleviate this, we introduce Hypernetworks for INstruction Tuning (HINT), which convert task instructions and examples using a pretrained text encoder into parameter-efficient modules inserted into an underlying model, eliminating the need to include instructions in the model input. Compared to prior approaches that concatenate instructions with every input instance, we find that HINT models are significantly more compute-efficient and consistently outperform these approaches for a given inference budget.

在这项工作中，我们证明了多种语的大规模序列到序列（SEQ2SEQ）模型，该模型是通过Denoising和因果语言建模（CLM）任务的混合物进行训练的，比仅解码器模型更有效地进行了效率的学习者在各种任务上。特别是，我们培训了一个名为Alexa教师模型（Alexatm 20b）的200亿个参数多语言SEQ2SEQ模型，并表明它在1-Shot摘要任务上实现了最先进的（SOTA）性能，超过了更大的540B PALM DOPODER模型。 Alexatm 20b还可以在1-Shot Machine翻译中实现SOTA，尤其是对于低资源语言，几乎所有语言对（阿拉伯语，英语，法语，德语，德语，印地语，意大利语，日语，以及flores-101数据集上的泰卢固语）。我们还显示了零拍设置，AlexATM 20B在SuperGlue和SqueadV2数据集上的表现优于GPT3（175B），并在XNLI，XCOPA，PAWS-X和XWINOGRAD等多语言任务上提供SOTA性能。总体而言，我们的结果为SEQ2SEQ模型提供了一个令人信服的案例，作为大型语言模型（LLM）培训的仅解码器模型的强大替代方法。

从有限的资源中获得最大收益可以进步自然语言处理（NLP）研究和实践，同时保守资源。这些资源可能是数据，时间，存储或能源。NLP的最新工作从缩放率产生了有趣的结果。但是，仅使用比例来改善结果意味着资源消耗也会扩展。这种关系激发了对有效方法的研究，这些方法需要更少的资源才能获得相似的结果。这项调查涉及NLP效率的方法和发现，旨在指导该领域的新研究人员并激发新方法的发展。

具有更多数据，计算和参数的缩放语言模型在自然语言处理方面取得了重大进展。例如，由于缩放，GPT-3能够在内心学习任务上实现强烈结果。但是，培训这些大密度模型需要大量的计算资源。在本文中，我们提出并开发了名为Glam（通用语言模型）的语言模型系列，它使用稀疏激活的专家架构来规模模型容量，同时与致密变体相比，也产生显着更少的训练成本。最大的Glam具有1.2万亿参数，比GPT-3大约为7倍。它仅消耗了用于训练GPT-3的1/3的能量，并且需要一半的计算拖鞋进行推理，同时仍然在29个NLP任务中实现更好的整体零射击和一次性性能。

通过微调将大规模的预训练语言模型适应下游任务是实现NLP基准测试最先进性能的标准方法。然而，微调具有数百万或数十亿个参数的所有重量模型是对低资源设置中不稳定的采样低效，并且浪费，因为它需要为每个任务存储模型的单独副本。最近的工作已经开发了参数高效的微调方法，但这些方法仍然需要相对大量的参数或表现不足标准微调。在这项工作中，我们提出了一种特殊调整大型语言模型的方法，其在任务性能和比率参数之间具有更好的权衡的方法，而不是比上事先工作。 Compacter通过构建适配器，低级优化和参数化超复分乘法层的思想之上来实现这一目标。具体地，Compacter将特定于特定的权重矩阵插入到预估计模型的权重中，这些权重被有效地计算为共享的“慢速”权重和“快速”等级 - 每个Compacter层定义的矩阵之间的矩阵产品的总和。仅通过培训0.047％的预磨料模型的参数，Compacter会在胶水上标准微调和胜过标准微调的标准微调和低资源设置。我们的代码在〜\ url {https://github.com/rabeehk/compacter}上公开使用。

本文探讨了提高语言模型的零次学习能力的简单方法。我们表明，指令调整 - 通过对说明书中所述的任务集合微调语言模型 - 大幅提升零射门上看不见任务中的表现。我们采取预训练的语言模型和指令调整它通过自然语言指令模板语言表达了60NLP任务137B参数。我们评估这种指令调整模型，我们称之为FLAN，在看不见的任务类型。FLAN显着改善其未修饰的对应的性能和超过25的20个任务，我们评估零射门175BGPT-3。FLAN甚至GPT-3通过在安利，RTE，BoolQ，AI2-ARC，OpenbookQA和StoryCloze大比分胜过几拍。消融研究显示任务和模型的规模，这个数字是指令调整取得成功的关键组成部分。

Pre-trained large language models can efficiently interpolate human-written prompts in a natural way. Multitask prompted learning can help generalization through a diverse set of tasks at once, thus enhancing the potential for more effective downstream fine-tuning. To perform efficient multitask-inference in the same batch, parameter-efficient fine-tuning methods such as prompt tuning have been proposed. However, the existing prompt tuning methods may lack generalization. We propose SPT, a semi-parametric prompt tuning method for multitask prompted learning. The novel component of SPT is a memory bank from where memory prompts are retrieved based on discrete prompts. Extensive experiments, such as (i) fine-tuning a full language model with SPT on 31 different tasks from 8 different domains and evaluating zero-shot generalization on 9 heldout datasets under 5 NLP task categories and (ii) pretraining SPT on the GLUE datasets and evaluating fine-tuning on the SuperGLUE datasets, demonstrate effectiveness of SPT.

One of the most impressive results of recent NLP history is the ability of pre-trained language models to solve new tasks in a zero-shot setting. To achieve this, NLP tasks are framed as natural language prompts, generating a response indicating the predicted output. Nonetheless, the performance in such settings often lags far behind its supervised counterpart, suggesting a large space for potential improvement. In this paper, we explore methods to utilize unlabeled data to improve zero-shot performance. Specifically, we take advantage of the fact that multiple prompts can be used to specify a single task, and propose to regularize prompt consistency, encouraging consistent predictions over this diverse set of prompts. Our method makes it possible to fine-tune the model either with extra unlabeled training data, or directly on test input at inference time in an unsupervised manner. In experiments, our approach outperforms the state-of-the-art zero-shot learner, T0 (Sanh et al., 2022), on 9 out of 11 datasets across 4 NLP tasks by up to 10.6 absolute points in terms of accuracy. The gains are often attained with a small number of unlabeled examples.

及时调整是以参数有效的方式对预训练的预训练语言模型的新范式。在这里，我们探讨了超级核武器的使用来产生超预价：我们提出了HyperPrompt，这是一种用于迅速基于变形金刚自我注意的任务调节的新型体系结构。超预要是通过超网络通过一代人来学习的端到端。 HyperPrompt允许网络学习特定于任务的功能地图，其中超预告是要参与的查询的任务全局记忆，同时启用了任务之间的灵活信息共享。我们表明，HyperPrompt与强大的多任务学习基线具有竞争力，其额外的任务条件参数的$ 0.14 \％$ $ \％，实现了出色的参数和计算效率。通过广泛的经验实验，我们证明，超级启示可以比强大的T5多任务学习基准和参数效率高效的适配器变体获得卓越的性能，包括及时调整和SuplyFormer ++在许多模型尺寸的自然语言理解胶水和SuperGrue的基准上。

This work introduces a new multi-task, parameter-efficient language model (LM) tuning method that learns to transfer knowledge across different tasks via a mixture of soft prompts-small prefix embedding vectors pre-trained for different tasks. Our method, called ATTEMPT (ATTEntional Mixtures of Prompt Tuning), obtains source prompts as encodings of large-scale source tasks into a small number of parameters and trains an attention module to interpolate the source prompts and a newly initialized target prompt for every instance in the target task. During training, only the target task prompt and the attention weights, which are shared between tasks in multi-task training, are updated, while the original LM and source prompts are intact. ATTEMPT is highly parameter-efficient (e.g., updates 2,300 times fewer parameters than full fine-tuning) while achieving high task performance using knowledge from high-resource tasks. Moreover, it is modular using pre-trained soft prompts, and can flexibly add or remove source prompts for effective knowledge transfer. Our experimental results across 21 diverse NLP datasets show that ATTEMPT significantly outperforms prompt tuning and outperforms or matches fully fine-tuned or other parameter-efficient tuning approaches that use over ten times more parameters. Finally, ATTEMPT outperforms previous work in few-shot learning settings.

最近的几种方法，例如参数有效的微调（PEFT）和模式开发训练（PET），在标签筛选设置中取得了令人印象深刻的结果。但是，它们很难使用，因为它们会受到手动制作的提示的高度可变性，并且通常需要十亿参数语言模型才能达到高精度。为了解决这些缺点，我们提出了SETFIT（句子变压器微调），这是一个有效且迅速的框架，用于对句子变形金刚（ST）进行几次微调。 SetFit首先以对比的暹罗方式对少数文本对进行微调验证的st。然后将所得模型用于生成丰富的文本嵌入，这些嵌入方式用于训练分类头。这个简单的框架不需要任何提示或口头化，并且比现有技术少的参数较少，因此可以实现高精度。我们的实验表明，SetFit通过PEFT和PET技术获得了可比的结果，同时训练的速度更快。我们还表明，SETFIT可以通过简单地切换ST主体来应用于多语言设置。我们的代码可从https://github.com/huggingface/setFit以及我们的数据集获得，网址为https://huggingface.co/setfit。

大型语言模型（例如GPT-3（Brown等，2020）可以执行任意任务，而无需在仅使用少数标签示例的提示之后进行微调。可以将任意任务重新构成自然语言提示，并且可以要求语言模型生成完成，并以称为基于及时的学习的范式间接执行该任务。迄今为止，主要针对单向语言模型证明了新兴迅速的学习能力。但是，预先培训的双向语言模型（例如蒙版语言建模）为转移学习提供了更强大的学习表示。这激发了促使双向模型的可能性，但是它们的预训练目标使它们与现有的提示范式不相容。我们提出SAP（顺序自动回旋提示），该技术可以使双向模型提示。利用机器翻译任务作为案例研究，我们提示了带有SAP的双向MT5模型（Xue等，2021），并演示其少量拍摄和零照片的翻译优于GPT-3等单向模型的几个单拍翻译和XGLM（Lin等，2021），尽管MT5的参数减少了约50％。我们进一步表明SAP对问题的回答和摘要有效。我们的结果首次表明基于及时的学习是更广泛的语言模型的新兴属性，而不仅仅是单向模型。

The recent GPT-3 model (Brown et al., 2020) achieves remarkable few-shot performance solely by leveraging a natural-language prompt and a few task demonstrations as input context. Inspired by their findings, we study few-shot learning in a more practical scenario, where we use smaller language models for which fine-tuning is computationally efficient. We present LM-BFF-better few-shot fine-tuning of language models 1 -a suite of simple and complementary techniques for finetuning language models on a small number of annotated examples. Our approach includes (1) prompt-based fine-tuning together with a novel pipeline for automating prompt generation; and (2) a refined strategy for dynamically and selectively incorporating demonstrations into each context. Finally, we present a systematic evaluation for analyzing few-shot performance on a range of NLP tasks, including classification and regression. Our experiments demonstrate that our methods combine to dramatically outperform standard fine-tuning procedures in this low resource setting, achieving up to 30% absolute improvement, and 11% on average across all tasks. Our approach makes minimal assumptions on task resources and domain expertise, and hence constitutes a strong task-agnostic method for few-shot learning. 2 * The first two authors contributed equally. 1 Alternatively, language models' best friends forever. 2 Our implementation is publicly available at https:// github.com/princeton-nlp/LM-BFF.

Finetuning language models on a collection of datasets phrased as instructions has been shown to improve model performance and generalization to unseen tasks. In this paper we explore instruction finetuning with a particular focus on (1) scaling the number of tasks, (2) scaling the model size, and (3) finetuning on chain-of-thought data. We find that instruction finetuning with the above aspects dramatically improves performance on a variety of model classes (PaLM, T5, U-PaLM), prompting setups (zero-shot, few-shot, CoT), and evaluation benchmarks (MMLU, BBH, TyDiQA, MGSM, open-ended generation). For instance, Flan-PaLM 540B instruction-finetuned on 1.8K tasks outperforms PALM 540B by a large margin (+9.4% on average). Flan-PaLM 540B achieves state-of-the-art performance on several benchmarks, such as 75.2% on five-shot MMLU. We also publicly release Flan-T5 checkpoints, which achieve strong few-shot performance even compared to much larger models, such as PaLM 62B. Overall, instruction finetuning is a general method for improving the performance and usability of pretrained language models.

及时调整是将预训练模型调整到下游任务的极其有效的工具。但是，基于标准及时的方法主要考虑下游任务的足够数据的情况。目前尚不清楚是否可以将优势传输到几杆式制度，在每个下游任务中只有有限的数据。尽管有些作品证明了在几次弹奏设置下及时调整的潜力，但通过搜索离散提示或使用有限数据调整软提示的主流方法仍然非常具有挑战性。通过广泛的实证研究，我们发现迅速调整和完全微调之间的学习差距仍然存在差距。为了弥合差距，我们提出了一个新的及时调整框架，称为软模板调整（STT）。 STT结合了手册和自动提示，并将下游分类任务视为掩盖语言建模任务。对不同设置的全面评估表明，STT可以在不引入其他参数的情况下缩小微调和基于及时的方法之间的差距。值得注意的是，它甚至可以胜过情感分类任务的时间和资源消耗的微调方法。