在这项工作中,我们提出了一种初步调查一种名为DYNA-T的新算法。在钢筋学习(RL)中,规划代理有自己的环境表示作为模型。要发现与环境互动的最佳政策,代理商会收集试验和错误时尚的经验。经验可用于学习更好的模型或直接改进价值函数和政策。通常是分离的,Dyna-Q是一种混合方法,在每次迭代,利用真实体验更新模型以及值函数,同时使用模拟数据从其模型中的应用程序进行行动。然而,规划过程是计算昂贵的并且强烈取决于国家行动空间的维度。我们建议在模拟体验上构建一个上置信树(UCT),并在在线学习过程中搜索要选择的最佳动作。我们证明了我们提出的方法对来自Open AI的三个测试平台环境的一系列初步测试的有效性。与Dyna-Q相比,Dyna-T通过选择更强大的动作选择策略来优于随机环境中的最先进的RL代理。
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This paper surveys the eld of reinforcement learning from a computer-science perspective. It is written to be accessible to researchers familiar with machine learning. Both the historical basis of the eld and a broad selection of current work are summarized. Reinforcement learning is the problem faced by an agent that learns behavior through trial-and-error interactions with a dynamic environment. The work described here has a resemblance to work in psychology, but di ers considerably in the details and in the use of the word \reinforcement." The paper discusses central issues of reinforcement learning, including trading o exploration and exploitation, establishing the foundations of the eld via Markov decision theory, learning from delayed reinforcement, constructing empirical models to accelerate learning, making use of generalization and hierarchy, and coping with hidden state. It concludes with a survey of some implemented systems and an assessment of the practical utility of current methods for reinforcement learning.
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使用规划算法和神经网络模型的基于模型的强化学习范例最近在不同的应用中实现了前所未有的结果,导致现在被称为深度增强学习的内容。这些代理非常复杂,涉及多个组件,可能会为研究产生挑战的因素。在这项工作中,我们提出了一个适用于这些类型代理的新模块化软件架构,以及一组建筑块,可以轻松重复使用和组装,以构建基于模型的增强学习代理。这些构建块包括规划算法,策略和丢失功能。我们通过将多个这些构建块组合实现和测试经过针对三种不同的测试环境的代理来说明这种架构的使用:Cartpole,Minigrid和Tictactoe。在我们的实施中提供的一个特定的规划算法,并且以前没有用于加强学习,我们称之为Imperage Minimax,在三个测试环境中取得了良好的效果。用这种架构进行的实验表明,规划算法,政策和损失函数的最佳组合依赖性严重问题。该结果提供了证据表明,拟议的架构是模块化和可重复使用的,对想要研究新环境和技术的强化学习研究人员有用。
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Batch reinforcement learning is a subfield of dynamic programming-based reinforcement learning. Originally defined as the task of learning the best possible policy from a fixed set of a priori-known transition samples, the (batch) algorithms developed in this field can be easily adapted to the classical online case, where the agent interacts with the environment while learning. Due to the efficient use of collected data and the stability of the learning process, this research area has attracted a lot of attention recently. In this chapter, we introduce the basic principles and the theory behind batch reinforcement learning, describe the most important algorithms, exemplarily discuss ongoing research within this field, and briefly survey real-world applications of batch reinforcement learning.
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Safety is still one of the major research challenges in reinforcement learning (RL). In this paper, we address the problem of how to avoid safety violations of RL agents during exploration in probabilistic and partially unknown environments. Our approach combines automata learning for Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) and shield synthesis in an iterative approach. Initially, the MDP representing the environment is unknown. The agent starts exploring the environment and collects traces. From the collected traces, we passively learn MDPs that abstractly represent the safety-relevant aspects of the environment. Given a learned MDP and a safety specification, we construct a shield. For each state-action pair within a learned MDP, the shield computes exact probabilities on how likely it is that executing the action results in violating the specification from the current state within the next $k$ steps. After the shield is constructed, the shield is used during runtime and blocks any actions that induce a too large risk from the agent. The shielded agent continues to explore the environment and collects new data on the environment. Iteratively, we use the collected data to learn new MDPs with higher accuracy, resulting in turn in shields able to prevent more safety violations. We implemented our approach and present a detailed case study of a Q-learning agent exploring slippery Gridworlds. In our experiments, we show that as the agent explores more and more of the environment during training, the improved learned models lead to shields that are able to prevent many safety violations.
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本文研究了一种使用背景计划的新方法,用于基于模型的增强学习:混合(近似)动态编程更新和无模型更新,类似于DYNA体系结构。通过学习模型的背景计划通常比无模型替代方案(例如Double DQN)差,尽管前者使用了更多的内存和计算。基本问题是,学到的模型可能是不准确的,并且经常会产生无效的状态,尤其是在迭代许多步骤时。在本文中,我们通过将背景规划限制为一组(抽象)子目标并仅学习本地,子观念模型来避免这种限制。这种目标空间计划(GSP)方法更有效地是在计算上,自然地纳入了时间抽象,以进行更快的长胜压计划,并避免完全学习过渡动态。我们表明,在各种情况下,我们的GSP算法比双DQN基线要快得多。
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在实际应用中,尽管这种知识对于确定反应性控制系统与环境的精确相互作用很重要,但我们很少可以完全观察到系统的环境。因此,我们提出了一种在部分可观察到的环境中进行加固学习方法(RL)。在假设环境的行为就像是可观察到的马尔可夫决策过程,但我们对其结构或过渡概率不了解。我们的方法将Q学习与IOALERGIA结合在一起,这是一种学习马尔可夫决策过程(MDP)的方法。通过从RL代理的发作中学习环境的MDP模型,我们可以在不明确的部分可观察到的域中启用RL,而没有明确的记忆,以跟踪以前的相互作用,以处理由部分可观察性引起的歧义。相反,我们通过模拟学习环境模型上的新体验以跟踪探索状态,以抽象环境状态的形式提供其他观察结果。在我们的评估中,我们报告了方法的有效性及其有希望的性能,与六种具有复发性神经网络和固定记忆的最先进的深度RL技术相比。
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由于数据量增加,金融业的快速变化已经彻底改变了数据处理和数据分析的技术,并带来了新的理论和计算挑战。与古典随机控制理论和解决财务决策问题的其他分析方法相比,解决模型假设的财务决策问题,强化学习(RL)的新发展能够充分利用具有更少模型假设的大量财务数据并改善复杂的金融环境中的决策。该调查纸目的旨在审查最近的资金途径的发展和使用RL方法。我们介绍了马尔可夫决策过程,这是许多常用的RL方法的设置。然后引入各种算法,重点介绍不需要任何模型假设的基于价值和基于策略的方法。连接是用神经网络进行的,以扩展框架以包含深的RL算法。我们的调查通过讨论了这些RL算法在金融中各种决策问题中的应用,包括最佳执行,投资组合优化,期权定价和对冲,市场制作,智能订单路由和Robo-Awaring。
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Deep reinforcement learning is poised to revolutionise the field of AI and represents a step towards building autonomous systems with a higher level understanding of the visual world. Currently, deep learning is enabling reinforcement learning to scale to problems that were previously intractable, such as learning to play video games directly from pixels. Deep reinforcement learning algorithms are also applied to robotics, allowing control policies for robots to be learned directly from camera inputs in the real world. In this survey, we begin with an introduction to the general field of reinforcement learning, then progress to the main streams of value-based and policybased methods. Our survey will cover central algorithms in deep reinforcement learning, including the deep Q-network, trust region policy optimisation, and asynchronous advantage actor-critic. In parallel, we highlight the unique advantages of deep neural networks, focusing on visual understanding via reinforcement learning. To conclude, we describe several current areas of research within the field.
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基于模型的强化学习有望通过学习环境中的中间模型来预测未来的相互作用,从而从与环境的互动较少的相互作用中学习最佳政策。当预测一系列相互作用时,限制预测范围的推出长度是关键的超参数,因为预测的准确性会降低远离真实体验的区域。结果,从长远来看,从长远来看,总体上更糟糕的政策。因此,超参数提供了质量和效率之间的权衡。在这项工作中,我们将调整推出长度调整为元级的顺序决策问题的问题构成了问题,该问题优化了基于模型的强化学习所学到的最终策略,鉴于环境相互作用的固定预算通过基于反馈动态调整超参数来调整超参数。从学习过程中,例如模型的准确性和互动的其余预算。我们使用无模型的深度强化学习来解决元级决策问题,并证明我们的方法在两个众所周知的强化学习环境上优于共同的启发式基准。
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一种简单自然的增强学习算法(RL)是蒙特卡洛探索开始(MCES),通过平均蒙特卡洛回报来估算Q功能,并通过选择最大化Q当前估计的行动来改进策略。 -功能。探索是通过“探索开始”来执行的,即每个情节以随机选择的状态和动作开始,然后遵循当前的策略到终端状态。在Sutton&Barto(2018)的RL经典书中,据说建立MCES算法的收敛是RL中最重要的剩余理论问题之一。但是,MCE的收敛问题证明是非常细微的。 Bertsekas&Tsitsiklis(1996)提供了一个反例,表明MCES算法不一定会收敛。 TSITSIKLIS(2002)进一步表明,如果修改了原始MCES算法,以使Q-功能估计值以所有状态行动对以相同的速率更新,并且折现因子严格少于一个,则MCES算法收敛。在本文中,我们通过Sutton&Barto(1998)中给出的原始,更有效的MCES算法取得进展政策。这样的MDP包括大量的环境,例如所有确定性环境和所有具有时间步长的情节环境或作为状态的任何单调变化的值。与以前使用随机近似的证据不同,我们引入了一种新型的感应方法,该方法非常简单,仅利用大量的强规律。
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Safe Reinforcement Learning can be defined as the process of learning policies that maximize the expectation of the return in problems in which it is important to ensure reasonable system performance and/or respect safety constraints during the learning and/or deployment processes. We categorize and analyze two approaches of Safe Reinforcement Learning. The first is based on the modification of the optimality criterion, the classic discounted finite/infinite horizon, with a safety factor. The second is based on the modification of the exploration process through the incorporation of external knowledge or the guidance of a risk metric. We use the proposed classification to survey the existing literature, as well as suggesting future directions for Safe Reinforcement Learning.
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在强化学习中,蒙特卡洛算法通过平均偶发回报来更新Q功能。在Monte Carlo UCB(MC-UCB)算法中,在每个状态下采取的动作是最大化Q函数加上UCB勘探项的动作,该术语偏向于选择频率较低的动作的选择。尽管在为MC-UCB建立遗憾界限方面已经进行了重要的工作,但大多数工作都集中在该问题的有限培训版本上,每个情节都在不断数量的步骤后终止。对于此类有限的Horizo​​n问题,最佳策略既取决于当前状态和情节中的时间。但是,对于许多自然的情节问题,例如GO,CHESS和机器人任务等游戏,该情节是随机的,最佳政策是静止的。对于此类环境,MC-UCB中的Q功能是否会收敛到最佳Q函数,这是一个空旷的问题。我们猜想,与Q学习不同,它并不是所有MDP的收敛。尽管如此,我们表明,对于大型MDP,其中包括二十一点和确定性MDP等随机MDP,例如GO,MC-UCB中的Q功能几乎可以肯定地收敛到最佳Q函数。该结果的直接推论是,它几乎肯定会为所有有限的Horizo​​n MDP收敛。我们还提供了数值实验,为MC-UCB提供了进一步的见解。
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马尔可夫决策过程通常用于不确定性下的顺序决策。然而,对于许多方面,从受约束或安全规范到任务和奖励结构中的各种时间(非Markovian)依赖性,需要扩展。为此,近年来,兴趣已经发展成为强化学习和时间逻辑的组合,即灵活的行为学习方法的组合,具有稳健的验证和保证。在本文中,我们描述了最近引入的常规决策过程的实验调查,该过程支持非马洛维亚奖励功能以及过渡职能。特别是,我们为常规决策过程,与在线,增量学习有关的算法扩展,对无模型和基于模型的解决方案算法的实证评估,以及以常规但非马尔维亚,网格世界的应用程序的算法扩展。
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动物和人工代理商都受益于支持跨任务的快速学习的国家表示,使他们能够有效地遍历其环境以获得奖励状态。在固定政策下衡量预期累积,贴现国家占用的后续代表(SR),可以在否则的马尔可维亚环境中有效地转移到不同的奖励结构,并假设生物行为和神经活动的基础方面。然而,在现实世界中,奖励可能会移动或仅用于消费一次,可能只是将位置或者代理可以简单地旨在尽可能快地到达目标状态,而不会产生人工强加的任务视野的约束。在这种情况下,最具行为相关的代表将携带有关代理人可能首先达到兴趣国的信息的信息,而不是在可能的无限时间跨度访问它们的频率。为了反映此类需求,我们介绍了第一次占用代表(FR),该代表(FR),该代表(FR)衡量预期的时间折扣首次访问状态。我们证明FR有助于探索,选择有效的路径到所需状态,允许代理在某些条件下规划由一系列子板定义的可透明的最佳轨迹,并引起避免威胁刺激的动物类似的行为。
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With the development of deep representation learning, the domain of reinforcement learning (RL) has become a powerful learning framework now capable of learning complex policies in high dimensional environments. This review summarises deep reinforcement learning (DRL) algorithms and provides a taxonomy of automated driving tasks where (D)RL methods have been employed, while addressing key computational challenges in real world deployment of autonomous driving agents. It also delineates adjacent domains such as behavior cloning, imitation learning, inverse reinforcement learning that are related but are not classical RL algorithms. The role of simulators in training agents, methods to validate, test and robustify existing solutions in RL are discussed.
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Adequately assigning credit to actions for future outcomes based on their contributions is a long-standing open challenge in Reinforcement Learning. The assumptions of the most commonly used credit assignment method are disadvantageous in tasks where the effects of decisions are not immediately evident. Furthermore, this method can only evaluate actions that have been selected by the agent, making it highly inefficient. Still, no alternative methods have been widely adopted in the field. Hindsight Credit Assignment is a promising, but still unexplored candidate, which aims to solve the problems of both long-term and counterfactual credit assignment. In this thesis, we empirically investigate Hindsight Credit Assignment to identify its main benefits, and key points to improve. Then, we apply it to factored state representations, and in particular to state representations based on the causal structure of the environment. In this setting, we propose a variant of Hindsight Credit Assignment that effectively exploits a given causal structure. We show that our modification greatly decreases the workload of Hindsight Credit Assignment, making it more efficient and enabling it to outperform the baseline credit assignment method on various tasks. This opens the way to other methods based on given or learned causal structures.
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在线强化学习(RL)中的挑战之一是代理人需要促进对环境的探索和对样品的利用来优化其行为。无论我们是否优化遗憾,采样复杂性,状态空间覆盖范围或模型估计,我们都需要攻击不同的勘探开发权衡。在本文中,我们建议在分离方法组成的探索 - 剥削问题:1)“客观特定”算法(自适应)规定哪些样本以收集到哪些状态,似乎它可以访问a生成模型(即环境的模拟器); 2)负责尽可能快地生成规定样品的“客观无关的”样品收集勘探策略。建立最近在随机最短路径问题中进行探索的方法,我们首先提供一种算法,它给出了每个状态动作对所需的样本$ B(S,a)$的样本数量,需要$ \ tilde {o} (bd + d ^ {3/2} s ^ 2 a)收集$ b = \ sum_ {s,a} b(s,a)$所需样本的$时间步骤,以$ s $各国,$ a $行动和直径$ d $。然后我们展示了这种通用探索算法如何与“客观特定的”策略配对,这些策略规定了解决各种设置的样本要求 - 例如,模型估计,稀疏奖励发现,无需无成本勘探沟通MDP - 我们获得改进或新颖的样本复杂性保证。
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我们介绍了一种改进政策改进的方法,该方法在基于价值的强化学习(RL)的贪婪方法与基于模型的RL的典型计划方法之间进行了插值。新方法建立在几何视野模型(GHM,也称为伽马模型)的概念上,该模型对给定策略的折现状态验证分布进行了建模。我们表明,我们可以通过仔细的基本策略GHM的仔细组成,而无需任何其他学习,可以评估任何非马尔科夫策略,以固定的概率在一组基本马尔可夫策略之间切换。然后,我们可以将广义政策改进(GPI)应用于此类非马尔科夫政策的收集,以获得新的马尔可夫政策,通常将其表现优于其先驱。我们对这种方法提供了彻底的理论分析,开发了转移和标准RL的应用,并在经验上证明了其对标准GPI的有效性,对充满挑战的深度RL连续控制任务。我们还提供了GHM培训方法的分析,证明了关于先前提出的方法的新型收敛结果,并显示了如何在深度RL设置中稳定训练这些模型。
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具有很多玩家的非合作和合作游戏具有许多应用程序,但是当玩家数量增加时,通常仍然很棘手。由Lasry和Lions以及Huang,Caines和Malham \'E引入的,平均野外运动会(MFGS)依靠平均场外近似值,以使玩家数量可以成长为无穷大。解决这些游戏的传统方法通常依赖于以完全了解模型的了解来求解部分或随机微分方程。最近,增强学习(RL)似乎有望解决复杂问题。通过组合MFGS和RL,我们希望在人口规模和环境复杂性方面能够大规模解决游戏。在这项调查中,我们回顾了有关学习MFG中NASH均衡的最新文献。我们首先确定最常见的设置(静态,固定和进化)。然后,我们为经典迭代方法(基于最佳响应计算或策略评估)提供了一个通用框架,以确切的方式解决MFG。在这些算法和与马尔可夫决策过程的联系的基础上,我们解释了如何使用RL以无模型的方式学习MFG解决方案。最后,我们在基准问题上介绍了数值插图,并以某些视角得出结论。
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