We present Deep Graph Infomax (DGI), a general approach for learning node representations within graph-structured data in an unsupervised manner. DGI relies on maximizing mutual information between patch representations and corresponding high-level summaries of graphs-both derived using established graph convolutional network architectures. The learnt patch representations summarize subgraphs centered around nodes of interest, and can thus be reused for downstream node-wise learning tasks. In contrast to most prior approaches to unsupervised learning with GCNs, DGI does not rely on random walk objectives, and is readily applicable to both transductive and inductive learning setups. We demonstrate competitive performance on a variety of node classification benchmarks, which at times even exceeds the performance of supervised learning.

Low-dimensional embeddings of nodes in large graphs have proved extremely useful in a variety of prediction tasks, from content recommendation to identifying protein functions. However, most existing approaches require that all nodes in the graph are present during training of the embeddings; these previous approaches are inherently transductive and do not naturally generalize to unseen nodes. Here we present GraphSAGE, a general inductive framework that leverages node feature information (e.g., text attributes) to efficiently generate node embeddings for previously unseen data. Instead of training individual embeddings for each node, we learn a function that generates embeddings by sampling and aggregating features from a node's local neighborhood. Our algorithm outperforms strong baselines on three inductive node-classification benchmarks: we classify the category of unseen nodes in evolving information graphs based on citation and Reddit post data, and we show that our algorithm generalizes to completely unseen graphs using a multi-graph dataset of protein-protein interactions. * The two first authors made equal contributions. 1 While it is common to refer to these data structures as social or biological networks, we use the term graph to avoid ambiguity with neural network terminology.

Recently, contrastive learning (CL) has emerged as a successful method for unsupervised graph representation learning. Most graph CL methods first perform stochastic augmentation on the input graph to obtain two graph views and maximize the agreement of representations in the two views. Despite the prosperous development of graph CL methods, the design of graph augmentation schemes-a crucial component in CL-remains rarely explored. We argue that the data augmentation schemes should preserve intrinsic structures and attributes of graphs, which will force the model to learn representations that are insensitive to perturbation on unimportant nodes and edges. However, most existing methods adopt uniform data augmentation schemes, like uniformly dropping edges and uniformly shuffling features, leading to suboptimal performance. In this paper, we propose a novel graph contrastive representation learning method with adaptive augmentation that incorporates various priors for topological and semantic aspects of the graph. Specifically, on the topology level, we design augmentation schemes based on node centrality measures to highlight important connective structures. On the node attribute level, we corrupt node features by adding more noise to unimportant node features, to enforce the model to recognize underlying semantic information. We perform extensive experiments of node classification on a variety of real-world datasets. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed method consistently outperforms existing state-of-the-art baselines and even surpasses some supervised counterparts, which validates the effectiveness of the proposed contrastive framework with adaptive augmentation. CCS CONCEPTS• Computing methodologies → Unsupervised learning; Neural networks; Learning latent representations.

最近，最大化的互信息是一种强大的无监测图表表示学习的方法。现有方法通常有效地从拓扑视图中捕获信息但忽略特征视图。为了规避这个问题，我们通过利用功能和拓扑视图利用互信息最大化提出了一种新的方法。具体地，我们首先利用多视图表示学习模块来更好地捕获跨图形上的特征和拓扑视图的本地和全局信息内容。为了模拟由特征和拓扑空间共享的信息，我们使用相互信息最大化和重建损耗最小化开发公共表示学习模块。要明确鼓励图形表示之间的多样性在相同的视图中，我们还引入了一个分歧正则化，以扩大同一视图之间的表示之间的距离。合成和实际数据集的实验证明了集成功能和拓扑视图的有效性。特别是，与先前的监督方法相比，我们所提出的方法可以在无监督的代表和线性评估协议下实现可比或甚至更好的性能。

This paper studies learning the representations of whole graphs in both unsupervised and semi-supervised scenarios. Graph-level representations are critical in a variety of real-world applications such as predicting the properties of molecules and community analysis in social networks. Traditional graph kernel based methods are simple, yet effective for obtaining fixed-length representations for graphs but they suffer from poor generalization due to hand-crafted designs. There are also some recent methods based on language models (e.g. graph2vec) but they tend to only consider certain substructures (e.g. subtrees) as graph representatives. Inspired by recent progress of unsupervised representation learning, in this paper we proposed a novel method called InfoGraph for learning graph-level representations. We maximize the mutual information between the graph-level representation and the representations of substructures of different scales (e.g., nodes, edges, triangles). By doing so, the graph-level representations encode aspects of the data that are shared across different scales of substructures. Furthermore, we further propose InfoGraph*, an extension of InfoGraph for semi-supervised scenarios. InfoGraph* maximizes the mutual information between unsupervised graph representations learned by InfoGraph and the representations learned by existing supervised methods. As a result, the supervised encoder learns from unlabeled data while preserving the latent semantic space favored by the current supervised task. Experimental results on the tasks of graph classification and molecular property prediction show that InfoGraph is superior to state-of-the-art baselines and InfoGraph* can achieve performance competitive with state-of-the-art semi-supervised models.

We present graph attention networks (GATs), novel neural network architectures that operate on graph-structured data, leveraging masked self-attentional layers to address the shortcomings of prior methods based on graph convolutions or their approximations. By stacking layers in which nodes are able to attend over their neighborhoods' features, we enable (implicitly) specifying different weights to different nodes in a neighborhood, without requiring any kind of costly matrix operation (such as inversion) or depending on knowing the graph structure upfront. In this way, we address several key challenges of spectral-based graph neural networks simultaneously, and make our model readily applicable to inductive as well as transductive problems. Our GAT models have achieved or matched state-of-theart results across four established transductive and inductive graph benchmarks: the Cora, Citeseer and Pubmed citation network datasets, as well as a proteinprotein interaction dataset (wherein test graphs remain unseen during training).

We introduce a self-supervised approach for learning node and graph level representations by contrasting structural views of graphs. We show that unlike visual representation learning, increasing the number of views to more than two or contrasting multi-scale encodings do not improve performance, and the best performance is achieved by contrasting encodings from first-order neighbors and a graph diffusion. We achieve new state-ofthe-art results in self-supervised learning on 8 out of 8 node and graph classification benchmarks under the linear evaluation protocol. For example, on Cora (node) and Reddit-Binary (graph) classification benchmarks, we achieve 86.8% and 84.5% accuracy, which are 5.5% and 2.4% relative improvements over previous state-of-the-art. When compared to supervised baselines, our approach outperforms them in 4 out of 8 benchmarks.

Pre-publication draft of a book to be published byMorgan & Claypool publishers. Unedited version released with permission. All relevant copyrights held by the author and publisher extend to this pre-publication draft.

自我监督的学习提供了一个有希望的途径，消除了在图形上的代表学习中的昂贵标签信息的需求。然而，为了实现最先进的性能，方法通常需要大量的负例，并依赖于复杂的增强。这可能是昂贵的，特别是对于大图。为了解决这些挑战，我们介绍了引导的图形潜伏（BGRL） - 通过预测输入的替代增强来学习图表表示学习方法。 BGRL仅使用简单的增强，并减轻了对否定例子对比的需求，因此通过设计可扩展。 BGRL胜过或匹配现有的几种建立的基准，同时降低了内存成本的2-10倍。此外，我们表明，BGR1可以缩放到半监督方案中的数亿个节点的极大的图表 - 实现最先进的性能并改善监督基线，其中表示仅通过标签信息而塑造。特别是，我们的解决方案以BGRL为中心，将kdd杯2021的开放图基准的大规模挑战组成了一个获奖条目，在比所有先前可用的基准更大的级别的图形订单上，从而展示了我们方法的可扩展性和有效性。

尽管有关超图的机器学习吸引了很大的关注，但大多数作品都集中在（半）监督的学习上，这可能会导致繁重的标签成本和不良的概括。最近，对比学习已成为一种成功的无监督表示学习方法。尽管其他领域中对比度学习的发展繁荣，但对超图的对比学习仍然很少探索。在本文中，我们提出了Tricon（三个方向对比度学习），这是对超图的对比度学习的一般框架。它的主要思想是三个方向对比度，具体来说，它旨在在两个增强视图中最大化同一节点之间的协议（a），（b）在同一节点之间以及（c）之间，每个组之间的成员及其成员之间的协议（b） 。加上简单但令人惊讶的有效数据增强和负抽样方案，这三种形式的对比使Tricon能够在节点嵌入中捕获显微镜和介观结构信息。我们使用13种基线方法，5个数据集和两个任务进行了广泛的实验，这证明了Tricon的有效性，最明显的是，Tricon始终优于无监督的竞争对手，而且（半）受监督的竞争对手，大多数是由大量的节点分类的大量差额。

我们展示了拓扑转型等值表示学习，是图形数据节点表示的自我监督学习的一般范式，以实现图形卷积神经网络（GCNNS）的广泛适用性。通过在转换之前和之后的拓扑转换和节点表示之间的相互信息，从信息理论的角度来看，我们将提出的模型正式化。我们得出最大化这种相互信息可以放宽以最小化应用拓扑变换与节点表示之间的估计之间的跨熵。特别是，我们寻求从原始图表中采样节点对的子集，并在每对之间翻转边缘连接以改变图形拓扑。然后，我们通过从原始和变换图的特征表示重构拓扑转换来自动列出表示编码器以学习节点表示。在实验中，我们将所提出的模型应用于下游节点分类，图形分类和链路预测任务，结果表明，所提出的方法优于现有的无监督方法。

尽管图表学习（GRL）取得了重大进展，但要以足够的方式提取和嵌入丰富的拓扑结构和特征信息仍然是一个挑战。大多数现有方法都集中在本地结构上，并且无法完全融合全球拓扑结构。为此，我们提出了一种新颖的结构保留图表学习（SPGRL）方法，以完全捕获图的结构信息。具体而言，为了减少原始图的不确定性和错误信息，我们通过k-nearest邻居方法构建了特征图作为互补视图。该特征图可用于对比节点级别以捕获本地关系。此外，我们通过最大化整个图形和特征嵌入的相互信息（MI）来保留全局拓扑结构信息，从理论上讲，该信息可以简化为交换功能的特征嵌入和原始图以重建本身。广泛的实验表明，我们的方法在半监督节点分类任务上具有相当出色的性能，并且在图形结构或节点特征上噪声扰动下的鲁棒性出色。

对比学习在图表学习领域表现出了巨大的希望。通过手动构建正/负样本，大多数图对比度学习方法依赖于基于矢量内部产品的相似性度量标准来区分图形表示样品。但是，手工制作的样品构建（例如，图表的节点或边缘的扰动）可能无法有效捕获图形的固有局部结构。同样，基于矢量内部产品的相似性度量标准无法完全利用图形的局部结构来表征图差。为此，在本文中，我们提出了一种基于自适应子图生成的新型对比度学习框架，以实现有效且强大的自我监督图表示学习，并且最佳传输距离被用作子绘图之间的相似性度量。它的目的是通过捕获图的固有结构来生成对比样品，并根据子图的特征和结构同时区分样品。具体而言，对于每个中心节点，通过自适应学习关系权重与相应邻域的节点，我们首先开发一个网络来生成插值子图。然后，我们分别构建来自相同和不同节点的子图的正和负对。最后，我们采用两种类型的最佳运输距离（即Wasserstein距离和Gromov-Wasserstein距离）来构建结构化的对比损失。基准数据集上的广泛节点分类实验验证了我们的图形对比学习方法的有效性。

在异质图上的自我监督学习（尤其是对比度学习）方法可以有效地摆脱对监督数据的依赖。同时，大多数现有的表示学习方法将异质图嵌入到欧几里得或双曲线的单个几何空间中。这种单个几何视图通常不足以观察由于其丰富的语义和复杂结构而观察到异质图的完整图片。在这些观察结果下，本文提出了一种新型的自我监督学习方法，称为几何对比度学习（GCL），以更好地表示监督数据是不可用时的异质图。 GCL同时观察了从欧几里得和双曲线观点的异质图，旨在强烈合并建模丰富的语义和复杂结构的能力，这有望为下游任务带来更多好处。 GCL通过在局部局部和局部全球语义水平上对比表示两种几何视图之间的相互信息。在四个基准数据集上进行的广泛实验表明，在三个任务上，所提出的方法在包括节点分类，节点群集和相似性搜索在内的三个任务上都超过了强基础，包括无监督的方法和监督方法。

Machine learning on graphs is an important and ubiquitous task with applications ranging from drug design to friendship recommendation in social networks. The primary challenge in this domain is finding a way to represent, or encode, graph structure so that it can be easily exploited by machine learning models. Traditionally, machine learning approaches relied on user-defined heuristics to extract features encoding structural information about a graph (e.g., degree statistics or kernel functions). However, recent years have seen a surge in approaches that automatically learn to encode graph structure into low-dimensional embeddings, using techniques based on deep learning and nonlinear dimensionality reduction. Here we provide a conceptual review of key advancements in this area of representation learning on graphs, including matrix factorization-based methods, random-walk based algorithms, and graph neural networks. We review methods to embed individual nodes as well as approaches to embed entire (sub)graphs. In doing so, we develop a unified framework to describe these recent approaches, and we highlight a number of important applications and directions for future work.

在本文中，我们研究了在非全粒图上进行节点表示学习的自我监督学习的问题。现有的自我监督学习方法通​​常假定该图是同质的，其中链接的节点通常属于同一类或具有相似的特征。但是，这种同质性的假设在现实图表中并不总是正确的。我们通过为图神经网络开发脱钩的自我监督学习（DSSL）框架来解决这个问题。 DSSL模仿了节点的生成过程和语义结构的潜在变量建模的链接，该过程将不同邻域之间的不同基础语义解散到自我监督的节点学习过程中。我们的DSSL框架对编码器不可知，不需要预制的增强，因此对不同的图表灵活。为了通过潜在变量有效地优化框架，我们得出了自我监督目标的较低范围的证据，并开发了具有变异推理的可扩展培训算法。我们提供理论分析，以证明DSSL享有更好的下游性能。与竞争性的自我监督学习基线相比，对各种类图基准的广泛实验表明，我们提出的框架可以显着取得更好的性能。

图表表示学习是一种快速增长的领域，其中一个主要目标是在低维空间中产生有意义的图形表示。已经成功地应用了学习的嵌入式来执行各种预测任务，例如链路预测，节点分类，群集和可视化。图表社区的集体努力提供了数百种方法，但在所有评估指标下没有单一方法擅长，例如预测准确性，运行时间，可扩展性等。该调查旨在通过考虑算法来评估嵌入方法的所有主要类别的图表变体，参数选择，可伸缩性，硬件和软件平台，下游ML任务和多样化数据集。我们使用包含手动特征工程，矩阵分解，浅神经网络和深图卷积网络的分类法组织了图形嵌入技术。我们使用广泛使用的基准图表评估了节点分类，链路预测，群集和可视化任务的这些类别算法。我们在Pytorch几何和DGL库上设计了我们的实验，并在不同的多核CPU和GPU平台上运行实验。我们严格地审查了各种性能指标下嵌入方法的性能，并总结了结果。因此，本文可以作为比较指南，以帮助用户选择最适合其任务的方法。

关于图表的深度学习最近吸引了重要的兴趣。然而，大多数作品都侧重于（半）监督学习，导致缺点包括重标签依赖，普遍性差和弱势稳健性。为了解决这些问题，通过良好设计的借口任务在不依赖于手动标签的情况下提取信息知识的自我监督学习（SSL）已成为图形数据的有希望和趋势的学习范例。与计算机视觉和自然语言处理等其他域的SSL不同，图表上的SSL具有独家背景，设计理念和分类。在图表的伞下自我监督学习，我们对采用图表数据采用SSL技术的现有方法及时及全面的审查。我们构建一个统一的框架，数学上正式地规范图表SSL的范例。根据借口任务的目标，我们将这些方法分为四类：基于生成的，基于辅助性的，基于对比的和混合方法。我们进一步描述了曲线图SSL在各种研究领域的应用，并总结了绘图SSL的常用数据集，评估基准，性能比较和开源代码。最后，我们讨论了该研究领域的剩余挑战和潜在的未来方向。

无监督的图形表示学习是图形数据的非琐碎主题。在结构化数据的无监督代表学习中对比学习和自我监督学习的成功激发了图表上的类似尝试。使用对比损耗的当前无监督的图形表示学习和预培训主要基于手工增强图数据之间的对比度。但是，由于不可预测的不变性，图数据增强仍然没有很好地探索。在本文中，我们提出了一种新颖的协作图形神经网络对比学习框架（CGCL），它使用多个图形编码器来观察图形。不同视图观察的特征充当了图形编码器之间对比学习的图表增强，避免了任何扰动以保证不变性。 CGCL能够处理图形级和节点级表示学习。广泛的实验表明CGCL在无监督的图表表示学习中的优势以及图形表示学习的手工数据增强组合的非必要性。

This work investigates unsupervised learning of representations by maximizing mutual information between an input and the output of a deep neural network encoder. Importantly, we show that structure matters: incorporating knowledge about locality in the input into the objective can significantly improve a representation's suitability for downstream tasks. We further control characteristics of the representation by matching to a prior distribution adversarially. Our method, which we call Deep InfoMax (DIM), outperforms a number of popular unsupervised learning methods and compares favorably with fully-supervised learning on several classification tasks in with some standard architectures. DIM opens new avenues for unsupervised learning of representations and is an important step towards flexible formulations of representation learning objectives for specific end-goals.