未来的电力系统将在很大程度上依赖于具有很高分散的可再生能源和能源存储系统的微网格。在这种情况下，高复杂性和不确定性可能使常规的权力调度策略不可行。基于加强学习者（RL）控制器可以应对这一挑战，但是，本身不能提供安全保证，从而阻止其在实践中的部署。为了克服这一限制，我们提出了一个正式验证的RL控制器进行经济调度。我们通过编码岛屿意外事件的时间依赖性约束来扩展常规约束。使用基于集合的向后触及性分析来计算偶性约束，RL代理的动作通过安全层进行验证。不安全的动作被投影到安全的动作空间中，同时利用受限的扎根设置表示表示计算效率。使用现实世界测量值在住宅用例上证明了开发的方法。

增强学习（RL）是多能管理系统的有前途的最佳控制技术。它不需要先验模型 - 降低了前期和正在进行的项目特定工程工作，并且能够学习基础系统动力学的更好表示。但是，香草RL不能提供约束满意度的保证 - 导致其在安全至关重要的环境中产生各种不安全的互动。在本文中，我们介绍了两种新颖的安全RL方法，即SafeFallback和Afvafe，其中安全约束配方与RL配方脱钩，并且提供了硬构成满意度，可以保证在培训（探索）和开发过程中（近距离） ）最佳政策。在模拟的多能系统案例研究中，我们已经表明，这两种方法均与香草RL基准相比（94,6％和82,8％，而35.5％）和香草RL基准相比明显更高的效用（即有用的政策）开始。提出的SafeFallback方法甚至可以胜过香草RL基准（102,9％至100％）。我们得出的结论是，这两种方法都是超越RL的安全限制处理技术，正如随机代理所证明的，同时仍提供坚硬的保证。最后，我们向I.A.提出了基本的未来工作。随着更多数据可用，改善约束功能本身。

This paper presents a multi-agent Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) framework for autonomous control and integration of renewable energy resources into smart power grid systems. In particular, the proposed framework jointly considers demand response (DR) and distributed energy management (DEM) for residential end-users. DR has a widely recognized potential for improving power grid stability and reliability, while at the same time reducing end-users energy bills. However, the conventional DR techniques come with several shortcomings, such as the inability to handle operational uncertainties while incurring end-user disutility, which prevents widespread adoption in real-world applications. The proposed framework addresses these shortcomings by implementing DR and DEM based on real-time pricing strategy that is achieved using deep reinforcement learning. Furthermore, this framework enables the power grid service provider to leverage distributed energy resources (i.e., PV rooftop panels and battery storage) as dispatchable assets to support the smart grid during peak hours, thus achieving management of distributed energy resources. Simulation results based on the Deep Q-Network (DQN) demonstrate significant improvements of the 24-hour accumulative profit for both prosumers and the power grid service provider, as well as major reductions in the utilization of the power grid reserve generators.

过去半年来，从控制和强化学习社区的真实机器人部署的安全学习方法的贡献数量急剧上升。本文提供了一种简洁的但整体审查，对利用机器学习实现的最新进展，以实现在不确定因素下的安全决策，重点是统一控制理论和加固学习研究中使用的语言和框架。我们的评论包括：基于学习的控制方法，通过学习不确定的动态，加强学习方法，鼓励安全或坚固性的加固学习方法，以及可以正式证明学习控制政策安全的方法。随着基于数据和学习的机器人控制方法继续获得牵引力，研究人员必须了解何时以及如何最好地利用它们在安全势在必行的现实情景中，例如在靠近人类的情况下操作时。我们突出了一些开放的挑战，即将在未来几年推动机器人学习领域，并强调需要逼真的物理基准的基准，以便于控制和加固学习方法之间的公平比较。

Driven by the global decarbonization effort, the rapid integration of renewable energy into the conventional electricity grid presents new challenges and opportunities for the battery energy storage system (BESS) participating in the energy market. Energy arbitrage can be a significant source of revenue for the BESS due to the increasing price volatility in the spot market caused by the mismatch between renewable generation and electricity demand. In addition, the Frequency Control Ancillary Services (FCAS) markets established to stabilize the grid can offer higher returns for the BESS due to their capability to respond within milliseconds. Therefore, it is crucial for the BESS to carefully decide how much capacity to assign to each market to maximize the total profit under uncertain market conditions. This paper formulates the bidding problem of the BESS as a Markov Decision Process, which enables the BESS to participate in both the spot market and the FCAS market to maximize profit. Then, Proximal Policy Optimization, a model-free deep reinforcement learning algorithm, is employed to learn the optimal bidding strategy from the dynamic environment of the energy market under a continuous bidding scale. The proposed model is trained and validated using real-world historical data of the Australian National Electricity Market. The results demonstrate that our developed joint bidding strategy in both markets is significantly profitable compared to individual markets.

本文解决了当参与需求响应（DR）时优化电动汽车（EV）的充电/排放时间表的问题。由于电动汽车的剩余能量，到达和出发时间以及未来的电价中存在不确定性，因此很难做出充电决定以最大程度地减少充电成本，同时保证电动汽车的电池最先进（SOC）在内某些范围。为了解决这一难题，本文将EV充电调度问题制定为Markov决策过程（CMDP）。通过协同结合增强的Lagrangian方法和软演员评论家算法，本文提出了一种新型安全的非政策钢筋学习方法（RL）方法来解决CMDP。通过Lagrangian值函数以策略梯度方式更新Actor网络。采用双重危机网络来同步估计动作值函数，以避免高估偏差。所提出的算法不需要强烈的凸度保证，可以保证被检查的问题，并且是有效的样本。现实世界中电价的全面数值实验表明，我们提出的算法可以实现高解决方案最佳性和约束依从性。

电动汽车快速采用（EVS）要求广泛安装EV充电站。为了最大限度地提高充电站的盈利能力，提供充电和电网服务的智能控制器实际上很需要。然而，由于不确定的到达时间和EVS的充电需求，确定最佳充电时间表具有挑战性。在本文中，我们提出了一种新的集中分配和分散执行（CADE）强化学习（RL）框架，以最大限度地提高收费站的利润。在集中分配过程中，EVS被分配给等待或充电点。在分散的执行过程中，每个充电器都在学习来自共享重放内存的动作值函数的同时使其自己的充电/放电决定。该CADE框架显着提高了RL算法的可扩展性和采样效率。数值结果表明，所提出的CADE框架既有计算高效且可扩展，显着优于基线模型预测控制（MPC）。我们还提供了对学习的动作值的深入分析，以解释加强学习代理的内部工作。

智能能源网络提供了一种有效的手段，可容纳可变可再生能源（例如太阳能和风能）的高渗透率，这是能源生产深度脱碳的关键。但是，鉴于可再生能源以及能源需求的可变性，必须制定有效的控制和能源存储方案来管理可变的能源产生并实现所需的系统经济学和环境目标。在本文中，我们引入了由电池和氢能存储组成的混合储能系统，以处理与电价，可再生能源生产和消费有关的不确定性。我们旨在提高可再生能源利用率，并最大程度地减少能源成本和碳排放，同时确保网络内的能源可靠性和稳定性。为了实现这一目标，我们提出了一种多代理的深层确定性政策梯度方法，这是一种基于强化的基于强化学习的控制策略，可实时优化混合能源存储系统和能源需求的调度。提出的方法是无模型的，不需要明确的知识和智能能源网络环境的严格数学模型。基于现实世界数据的仿真结果表明：（i）混合储能系统和能源需求的集成和优化操作可将碳排放量减少78.69％，将成本节省的成本储蓄提高23.5％，可续订的能源利用率比13.2％以上。其他基线模型和（ii）所提出的算法优于最先进的自学习算法，例如Deep-Q网络。

在本文中，多种子体增强学习用于控制混合能量存储系统，通过最大化可再生能源和交易的价值来降低微电网的能量成本。该代理商必须学习在波动需求，动态批发能源价格和不可预测的可再生能源中，控制三种不同类型的能量存储系统。考虑了两种案例研究：首先看能量存储系统如何在动态定价下更好地整合可再生能源发电，第二种与这些同一代理商如何与聚合剂一起使用，以向自私外部微电网销售能量的能量减少自己的能源票据。这项工作发现，具有分散执行的多代理深度确定性政策梯度的集中学习及其最先进的变体允许多种代理方法显着地比来自单个全局代理的控制更好。还发现，在多种子体方法中使用单独的奖励功能比使用单个控制剂更好。还发现能够与其他微电网交易，而不是卖回实用电网，也发现大大增加了网格的储蓄。

利用其数据驱动和无模型的功能，深入加强学习（DRL）算法有可能应对由于引入基于可再生能源的一代而导致的不确定性升高。要同时处理能源系统的运营成本和技术约束（例如，生成需求平衡），DRL算法在设计奖励功能时必须考虑权衡取舍。这种权衡引入了额外的超参数，这些超参数会影响DRL算法的性能和提供可行解决方案的能力。在本文中，介绍了包括DDPG，TD3，SAC和PPO在内的不同DRL算法的性能比较。我们旨在为能源系统最佳调度问题提供这些DRL算法的公平比较。结果表明，与能源系统最佳调度问题的数学编程模型相比，即使在看不见的操作场景中，DRL算法在实时良好质量解决方案中提供的能力也是如此。然而，在大量高峰消费的情况下，这些算法未能提供可行的解决方案，这可能会阻碍其实际实施。

单位承诺（UC）是日期电力市场中的一个基本问题，有效解决UC问题至关重要。 UC问题通常采用数学优化技术，例如动态编程，拉格朗日放松和混合二次二次编程（MIQP）。但是，这些方法的计算时间随着发电机和能源资源的数量而增加，这仍然是行业中的主要瓶颈。人工智能的最新进展证明了加强学习（RL）解决UC问题的能力。不幸的是，当UC问题的大小增长时，现有关于解决RL的UC问题的研究受到维数的诅咒。为了解决这些问题，我们提出了一个优化方法辅助的集合深钢筋学习算法，其中UC问题是作为Markov决策过程（MDP）提出的，并通过集合框架中的多步进深度学习解决。所提出的算法通过解决量身定制的优化问题来确保相对较高的性能和操作约束的满意度来建立候选动作。关于IEEE 118和300总线系统的数值研究表明，我们的算法优于基线RL算法和MIQP。此外，所提出的算法在无法预见的操作条件下显示出强大的概括能力。

Besides the recent impressive results on reinforcement learning (RL), safety is still one of the major research challenges in RL. RL is a machine-learning approach to determine near-optimal policies in Markov decision processes (MDPs). In this paper, we consider the setting where the safety-relevant fragment of the MDP together with a temporal logic safety specification is given and many safety violations can be avoided by planning ahead a short time into the future. We propose an approach for online safety shielding of RL agents. During runtime, the shield analyses the safety of each available action. For any action, the shield computes the maximal probability to not violate the safety specification within the next $k$ steps when executing this action. Based on this probability and a given threshold, the shield decides whether to block an action from the agent. Existing offline shielding approaches compute exhaustively the safety of all state-action combinations ahead of time, resulting in huge computation times and large memory consumption. The intuition behind online shielding is to compute at runtime the set of all states that could be reached in the near future. For each of these states, the safety of all available actions is analysed and used for shielding as soon as one of the considered states is reached. Our approach is well suited for high-level planning problems where the time between decisions can be used for safety computations and it is sustainable for the agent to wait until these computations are finished. For our evaluation, we selected a 2-player version of the classical computer game SNAKE. The game represents a high-level planning problem that requires fast decisions and the multiplayer setting induces a large state space, which is computationally expensive to analyse exhaustively.

安全限制和最优性很重要，但有时控制器有时相互冲突的标准。虽然这些标准通常与不同的工具单独解决以维持正式保障，但在惩罚失败时，加强学习的常见做法是惩罚，以惩罚为单纯的启发式。我们严格地检查了安全性和最优性与惩罚的关系，并对安全价值函数进行了足够的条件：对给定任务的最佳价值函数，并强制执行安全约束。我们通过强大的二元性证明，揭示这种关系的结构，表明始终存在一个有限的惩罚，引起安全值功能。这种惩罚并不是独特的，但大不束缚：更大的惩罚不会伤害最优性。虽然通常无法计算最低所需的惩罚，但我们揭示了清晰的惩罚，奖励，折扣因素和动态互动的结构。这种洞察力建议实用，理论引导的启发式设计奖励功能，用于控制安全性很重要的控制问题。

The energy sector is facing rapid changes in the transition towards clean renewable sources. However, the growing share of volatile, fluctuating renewable generation such as wind or solar energy has already led to an increase in power grid congestion and network security concerns. Grid operators mitigate these by modifying either generation or demand (redispatching, curtailment, flexible loads). Unfortunately, redispatching of fossil generators leads to excessive grid operation costs and higher emissions, which is in direct opposition to the decarbonization of the energy sector. In this paper, we propose an AlphaZero-based grid topology optimization agent as a non-costly, carbon-free congestion management alternative. Our experimental evaluation confirms the potential of topology optimization for power grid operation, achieves a reduction of the average amount of required redispatching by 60%, and shows the interoperability with traditional congestion management methods. Our approach also ranked 1st in the WCCI 2022 Learning to Run a Power Network (L2RPN) competition. Based on our findings, we identify and discuss open research problems as well as technical challenges for a productive system on a real power grid.

在强化学习（RL）的试验和错误机制中，我们期望学习安全的政策时出现臭名昭着的矛盾：如何学习没有足够数据和关于危险区域的先前模型的安全政策？现有方法主要使用危险行动的后期惩罚，这意味着代理人不会受到惩罚，直到体验危险。这一事实导致代理商也无法在收敛之后学习零违规政策。否则，它不会收到任何惩罚并失去有关危险的知识。在本文中，我们提出了安全设置的演员 - 评论家（SSAC）算法，它使用面向安全的能量函数或安全索引限制了策略更新。安全索引旨在迅速增加，以便潜在的危险行动，这使我们能够在动作空间上找到安全设置，或控制安全集。因此，我们可以在服用它们之前识别危险行为，并在收敛后进一步获得零限制违规政策。我们声称我们可以以类似于学习价值函数的无模型方式学习能量函数。通过使用作为约束目标的能量函数转变，我们制定了受约束的RL问题。我们证明我们基于拉格朗日的解决方案确保学习的政策将收敛到某些假设下的约束优化。在复杂的模拟环境和硬件循环（HIL）实验中评估了所提出的算法，具有来自自动车辆的真实控制器。实验结果表明，所有环境中的融合政策达到了零限制违规和基于模型的基线的相当性能。

强化学习（RL）是一种有希望的方法，对现实世界的应用程序取得有限，因为确保安全探索或促进充分利用是控制具有未知模型和测量不确定性的机器人系统的挑战。这种学习问题对于连续空间（状态空间和动作空间）的复杂任务变得更加棘手。在本文中，我们提出了一种由几个方面组成的基于学习的控制框架：（1）线性时间逻辑（LTL）被利用，以便于可以通过无限视野的复杂任务转换为新颖的自动化结构; （2）我们为RL-Agent提出了一种创新的奖励计划，正式保证，使全球最佳政策最大化满足LTL规范的概率; （3）基于奖励塑造技术，我们开发了利用自动机构结构的好处进行了模块化的政策梯度架构来分解整体任务，并促进学习控制器的性能; （4）通过纳入高斯过程（GPS）来估计不确定的动态系统，我们使用指数控制屏障功能（ECBF）综合基于模型的保障措施来解决高阶相对度的问题。此外，我们利用LTL自动化和ECBF的性质来构建引导过程，以进一步提高勘探效率。最后，我们通过多个机器人环境展示了框架的有效性。我们展示了这种基于ECBF的模块化深RL算法在训练期间实现了近乎完美的成功率和保护安全性，并且在训练期间具有很高的概率信心。

本文提出了一种安全的竞标决策和单位维护调度的安全加强学习算法和竞争力的电力市场环境。在这个问题中，每个单位都旨在找到一个招标策略，以通过调度预防性维护同时保持其可靠性，以最大限度地提高其收入。维护调度提供了一些安全约束，应该始终满足。满足批判性安全性和可靠性限制，而生成单位具有彼此的不完整信息的竞标策略是一个具有挑战性的问题。双层优化和加强学习是解决这种问题的最先进方法。然而，双层优化和增强学习都无法应对不完全信息和关键安全限制的挑战。为了解决这些挑战，我们提出了安全的深度确定性政策梯度加强学习算法，其基于加强学习和预测安全滤波器的组合。案例研究表明，与其他现有技术相比，该方法可以实现更高的利润，同时满足系统安全约束。

The decarbonization of buildings presents new challenges for the reliability of the electrical grid as a result of the intermittency of renewable energy sources and increase in grid load brought about by end-use electrification. To restore reliability, grid-interactive efficient buildings can provide flexibility services to the grid through demand response. Residential demand response programs are hindered by the need for manual intervention by customers. To maximize the energy flexibility potential of residential buildings, an advanced control architecture is needed. Reinforcement learning is well-suited for the control of flexible resources as it is able to adapt to unique building characteristics compared to expert systems. Yet, factors hindering the adoption of RL in real-world applications include its large data requirements for training, control security and generalizability. Here we address these challenges by proposing the MERLIN framework and using a digital twin of a real-world 17-building grid-interactive residential community in CityLearn. We show that 1) independent RL-controllers for batteries improve building and district level KPIs compared to a reference RBC by tailoring their policies to individual buildings, 2) despite unique occupant behaviours, transferring the RL policy of any one of the buildings to other buildings provides comparable performance while reducing the cost of training, 3) training RL-controllers on limited temporal data that does not capture full seasonality in occupant behaviour has little effect on performance. Although, the zero-net-energy (ZNE) condition of the buildings could be maintained or worsened as a result of controlled batteries, KPIs that are typically improved by ZNE condition (electricity price and carbon emissions) are further improved when the batteries are managed by an advanced controller.

Ongoing risks from climate change have impacted the livelihood of global nomadic communities, and are likely to lead to increased migratory movements in coming years. As a result, mobility considerations are becoming increasingly important in energy systems planning, particularly to achieve energy access in developing countries. Advanced Plug and Play control strategies have been recently developed with such a decentralized framework in mind, more easily allowing for the interconnection of nomadic communities, both to each other and to the main grid. In light of the above, the design and planning strategy of a mobile multi-energy supply system for a nomadic community is investigated in this work. Motivated by the scale and dimensionality of the associated uncertainties, impacting all major design and decision variables over the 30-year planning horizon, Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) is implemented for the design and planning problem tackled. DRL based solutions are benchmarked against several rigid baseline design options to compare expected performance under uncertainty. The results on a case study for ger communities in Mongolia suggest that mobile nomadic energy systems can be both technically and economically feasible, particularly when considering flexibility, although the degree of spatial dispersion among households is an important limiting factor. Key economic, sustainability and resilience indicators such as Cost, Equivalent Emissions and Total Unmet Load are measured, suggesting potential improvements compared to available baselines of up to 25%, 67% and 76%, respectively. Finally, the decomposition of values of flexibility and plug and play operation is presented using a variation of real options theory, with important implications for both nomadic communities and policymakers focused on enabling their energy access.

Energy management systems (EMS) are becoming increasingly important in order to utilize the continuously growing curtailed renewable energy. Promising energy storage systems (ESS), such as batteries and green hydrogen should be employed to maximize the efficiency of energy stakeholders. However, optimal decision-making, i.e., planning the leveraging between different strategies, is confronted with the complexity and uncertainties of large-scale problems. Here, we propose a sophisticated deep reinforcement learning (DRL) methodology with a policy-based algorithm to realize the real-time optimal ESS planning under the curtailed renewable energy uncertainty. A quantitative performance comparison proved that the DRL agent outperforms the scenario-based stochastic optimization (SO) algorithm, even with a wide action and observation space. Owing to the uncertainty rejection capability of the DRL, we could confirm a robust performance, under a large uncertainty of the curtailed renewable energy, with a maximizing net profit and stable system. Action-mapping was performed for visually assessing the action taken by the DRL agent according to the state. The corresponding results confirmed that the DRL agent learns the way like what a human expert would do, suggesting reliable application of the proposed methodology.