For large state-space Markovian Decision Problems Monte-Carlo planning is one of the few viable approaches to find near-optimal solutions. In this paper we introduce a new algorithm, UCT, that applies bandit ideas to guide Monte-Carlo planning. In finite-horizon or discounted MDPs the algorithm is shown to be consistent and finite sample bounds are derived on the estimation error due to sampling. Experimental results show that in several domains, UCT is significantly more efficient than its alternatives.
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在强化学习中,蒙特卡洛算法通过平均偶发回报来更新Q功能。在Monte Carlo UCB(MC-UCB)算法中,在每个状态下采取的动作是最大化Q函数加上UCB勘探项的动作,该术语偏向于选择频率较低的动作的选择。尽管在为MC-UCB建立遗憾界限方面已经进行了重要的工作,但大多数工作都集中在该问题的有限培训版本上,每个情节都在不断数量的步骤后终止。对于此类有限的Horizo​​n问题,最佳策略既取决于当前状态和情节中的时间。但是,对于许多自然的情节问题,例如GO,CHESS和机器人任务等游戏,该情节是随机的,最佳政策是静止的。对于此类环境,MC-UCB中的Q功能是否会收敛到最佳Q函数,这是一个空旷的问题。我们猜想,与Q学习不同,它并不是所有MDP的收敛。尽管如此,我们表明,对于大型MDP,其中包括二十一点和确定性MDP等随机MDP,例如GO,MC-UCB中的Q功能几乎可以肯定地收敛到最佳Q函数。该结果的直接推论是,它几乎肯定会为所有有限的Horizo​​n MDP收敛。我们还提供了数值实验,为MC-UCB提供了进一步的见解。
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Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) is a recently proposed search method that combines the precision of tree search with the generality of random sampling. It has received considerable interest due to its spectacular success in the difficult problem of computer Go, but has also proved beneficial in a range of other domains. This paper is a survey of the literature to date, intended to provide a snapshot of the state of the art after the first five years of MCTS research. We outline the core algorithm's derivation, impart some structure on the many variations and enhancements that have been proposed, and summarise the results from the key game and non-game domains to which MCTS methods have been applied. A number of open research questions indicate that the field is ripe for future work.
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一种简单自然的增强学习算法(RL)是蒙特卡洛探索开始(MCES),通过平均蒙特卡洛回报来估算Q功能,并通过选择最大化Q当前估计的行动来改进策略。 -功能。探索是通过“探索开始”来执行的,即每个情节以随机选择的状态和动作开始,然后遵循当前的策略到终端状态。在Sutton&Barto(2018)的RL经典书中,据说建立MCES算法的收敛是RL中最重要的剩余理论问题之一。但是,MCE的收敛问题证明是非常细微的。 Bertsekas&Tsitsiklis(1996)提供了一个反例,表明MCES算法不一定会收敛。 TSITSIKLIS(2002)进一步表明,如果修改了原始MCES算法,以使Q-功能估计值以所有状态行动对以相同的速率更新,并且折现因子严格少于一个,则MCES算法收敛。在本文中,我们通过Sutton&Barto(1998)中给出的原始,更有效的MCES算法取得进展政策。这样的MDP包括大量的环境,例如所有确定性环境和所有具有时间步长的情节环境或作为状态的任何单调变化的值。与以前使用随机近似的证据不同,我们引入了一种新型的感应方法,该方法非常简单,仅利用大量的强规律。
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Monte Carlo规划者通常可以退回次优步骤,即使它们保证收敛于无限样本的极限。已知的渐近遗憾界限不提供任何方法来衡量搜索结束时推荐行动的信心。在这项工作中,我们证明了非稳定性匪徒和马尔可夫决策过程的Monte Carlo估计的次级最优性的范围。可以在搜索结束时直接计算这些界限,不需要了解真正的动作值。所提出的绑定蒙特卡罗溶解剂符合温和收敛条件的一般蒙特卡洛溶剂。我们经验通过多武装强盗和一个简单的求解器和蒙特卡罗树搜索的多武装强盗和离散马尔可夫决策过程的实验来测试界限的紧密性。
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本文研究了马尔可夫决策过程(MDPS)中用于政策评估的数据收集问题。在政策评估中,我们获得了目标政策,并要求估计它将在正式作为MDP的环境中获得的预期累积奖励。我们通过首先得出了使用奖励分布方差知识的Oracle数据收集策略来开发在树结构MDPS中的最佳数据收集理论。然后,我们介绍了减少的方差采样(射击)算法,即当奖励方差未知并与Oracle策略相比,奖励方差未知并绑定其亚典型性时,它近似于Oracle策略。最后,我们从经验上验证了射手会导致与甲骨文策略相当的均衡误差进行政策评估,并且比仅仅运行目标策略要低得多。
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We incorporate statistical confidence intervals in both the multi-armed bandit and the reinforcement learning problems. In the bandit problem we show that given n arms, it suffices to pull the arms a total of O (n/ε 2 ) log(1/δ) times to find an ε-optimal arm with probability of at least 1 − δ. This bound matches the lower bound of Mannor and Tsitsiklis (2004) up to constants. We also devise action elimination procedures in reinforcement learning algorithms. We describe a framework that is based on learning the confidence interval around the value function or the Q-function and eliminating actions that are not optimal (with high probability). We provide a model-based and a model-free variants of the elimination method. We further derive stopping conditions guaranteeing that the learned policy is approximately optimal with high probability. Simulations demonstrate a considerable speedup and added robustness over ε-greedy Q-learning. * . Preliminary and partial results from this work appeared as extended abstracts in COLT 2002 and ICML 2003.
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蒙特卡洛树搜索(MCT)是设计游戏机器人或解决顺序决策问题的强大方法。该方法依赖于平衡探索和开发的智能树搜索。MCT以模拟的形式进行随机抽样,并存储动作的统计数据,以在每个随后的迭代中做出更有教育的选择。然而,该方法已成为组合游戏的最新技术,但是,在更复杂的游戏(例如那些具有较高的分支因素或实时系列的游戏)以及各种实用领域(例如,运输,日程安排或安全性)有效的MCT应用程序通常需要其与问题有关的修改或与其他技术集成。这种特定领域的修改和混合方法是本调查的主要重点。最后一项主要的MCT调查已于2012年发布。自发布以来出现的贡献特别感兴趣。
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在线强化学习(RL)中的挑战之一是代理人需要促进对环境的探索和对样品的利用来优化其行为。无论我们是否优化遗憾,采样复杂性,状态空间覆盖范围或模型估计,我们都需要攻击不同的勘探开发权衡。在本文中,我们建议在分离方法组成的探索 - 剥削问题:1)“客观特定”算法(自适应)规定哪些样本以收集到哪些状态,似乎它可以访问a生成模型(即环境的模拟器); 2)负责尽可能快地生成规定样品的“客观无关的”样品收集勘探策略。建立最近在随机最短路径问题中进行探索的方法,我们首先提供一种算法,它给出了每个状态动作对所需的样本$ B(S,a)$的样本数量,需要$ \ tilde {o} (bd + d ^ {3/2} s ^ 2 a)收集$ b = \ sum_ {s,a} b(s,a)$所需样本的$时间步骤,以$ s $各国,$ a $行动和直径$ d $。然后我们展示了这种通用探索算法如何与“客观特定的”策略配对,这些策略规定了解决各种设置的样本要求 - 例如,模型估计,稀疏奖励发现,无需无成本勘探沟通MDP - 我们获得改进或新颖的样本复杂性保证。
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有效计划的能力对于生物体和人造系统都是至关重要的。在认知神经科学和人工智能(AI)中广泛研究了基于模型的计划和假期,但是从不同的角度来看,以及难以调和的考虑(生物现实主义与可伸缩性)的不同意见(生物现实主义与可伸缩性)。在这里,我们介绍了一种新颖的方法来计划大型POMDP(Active Tree search(ACT)),该方法结合了神经科学中领先的计划理论的规范性特征和生物学现实主义(主动推论)和树木搜索方法的可扩展性AI。这种统一对两种方法都是有益的。一方面,使用树搜索可以使生物学接地的第一原理,主动推断的方法可应用于大规模问题。另一方面,主动推理为探索 - 开发困境提供了一种原则性的解决方案,该解决方案通常在树搜索方法中以启发性解决。我们的模拟表明,ACT成功地浏览了对基于抽样的方法,需要自适应探索的问题以及大型POMDP问题“ RockSample”的二进制树,其中ACT近似于最新的POMDP解决方案。此外,我们说明了如何使用ACT来模拟人类和其他解决大型计划问题的人类和其他动物的神经生理反应(例如,在海马和前额叶皮层)。这些数值分析表明,主动树搜索是神经科学和AI计划理论的原则性实现,既具有生物现实主义和可扩展性。
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Partially observable Markov decision processes (POMDPs) provide a flexible representation for real-world decision and control problems. However, POMDPs are notoriously difficult to solve, especially when the state and observation spaces are continuous or hybrid, which is often the case for physical systems. While recent online sampling-based POMDP algorithms that plan with observation likelihood weighting have shown practical effectiveness, a general theory characterizing the approximation error of the particle filtering techniques that these algorithms use has not previously been proposed. Our main contribution is bounding the error between any POMDP and its corresponding finite sample particle belief MDP (PB-MDP) approximation. This fundamental bridge between PB-MDPs and POMDPs allows us to adapt any sampling-based MDP algorithm to a POMDP by solving the corresponding particle belief MDP, thereby extending the convergence guarantees of the MDP algorithm to the POMDP. Practically, this is implemented by using the particle filter belief transition model as the generative model for the MDP solver. While this requires access to the observation density model from the POMDP, it only increases the transition sampling complexity of the MDP solver by a factor of $\mathcal{O}(C)$, where $C$ is the number of particles. Thus, when combined with sparse sampling MDP algorithms, this approach can yield algorithms for POMDPs that have no direct theoretical dependence on the size of the state and observation spaces. In addition to our theoretical contribution, we perform five numerical experiments on benchmark POMDPs to demonstrate that a simple MDP algorithm adapted using PB-MDP approximation, Sparse-PFT, achieves performance competitive with other leading continuous observation POMDP solvers.
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Monte-Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) is an adversarial search paradigm that first found prominence with its success in the domain of computer Go. Early theoretical work established the game-theoretic soundness and convergence bounds for Upper Confidence bounds applied to Trees (UCT), the most popular instantiation of MCTS; however, there remain notable gaps in our understanding of how UCT behaves in practice. In this work, we address one such gap by considering the question of whether UCT can exhibit lookahead pathology -- a paradoxical phenomenon first observed in Minimax search where greater search effort leads to worse decision-making. We introduce a novel family of synthetic games that offer rich modeling possibilities while remaining amenable to mathematical analysis. Our theoretical and experimental results suggest that UCT is indeed susceptible to pathological behavior in a range of games drawn from this family.
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In this paper we develop a theoretical analysis of the performance of sampling-based fitted value iteration (FVI) to solve infinite state-space, discounted-reward Markovian decision processes (MDPs) under the assumption that a generative model of the environment is available. Our main results come in the form of finite-time bounds on the performance of two versions of sampling-based FVI. The convergence rate results obtained allow us to show that both versions of FVI are well behaving in the sense that by using a sufficiently large number of samples for a large class of MDPs, arbitrary good performance can be achieved with high probability. An important feature of our proof technique is that it permits the study of weighted L p -norm performance bounds. As a result, our technique applies to a large class of function-approximation methods (e.g., neural networks, adaptive regression trees, kernel machines, locally weighted learning), and our bounds scale well with the effective horizon of the MDP. The bounds show a dependence on the stochastic stability properties of the MDP: they scale with the discounted-average concentrability of the future-state distributions. They also depend on a new measure of the approximation power of the function space, the inherent Bellman residual, which reflects how well the function space is "aligned" with the dynamics and rewards of the MDP. The conditions of the main result, as well as the concepts introduced in the analysis, are extensively discussed and compared to previous theoretical results. Numerical experiments are used to substantiate the theoretical findings.
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强化学习理论集中在两个基本问题上:实现低遗憾,并确定$ \ epsilon $ - 最佳政策。虽然简单的减少允许人们应用低温算法来获得$ \ epsilon $ - 最佳政策并达到最坏的最佳速率,但尚不清楚低regret算法是否可以获得实例 - 最佳率的策略识别率。我们表明这是不可能的 - 在遗憾和确定$ \ epsilon $ - 最佳政策之间以最佳的利率确定了基本的权衡。由于我们的负面发现,我们提出了针对PAC表格增强学习实例依赖性样本复杂性的新量度,该方法明确说明了基础MDP中可达到的国家访问分布。然后,我们提出和分析一种基于计划的新型算法,该算法达到了这种样本的复杂性 - 产生的复杂性会随着次要差距和状态的“可达到性”而缩放。我们显示我们的算法几乎是最小的最佳选择,并且在一些示例中,我们实例依赖性样品复杂性比最差案例界限可显着改善。
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在大约正确的(PAC)强化学习(RL)中,需要代理来识别具有$ 1- \ delta $的$ \ epsilon $最佳政策。尽管此问题存在最小值最佳算法,但其实例依赖性复杂性在情节马尔可夫决策过程(MDPS)中仍然难以捉摸。在本文中,我们提出了具有有限状态和动作空间的确定性情节MDP中PAC RL样品复杂性的第一个(几乎)匹配的上限和下限。特别是,我们的界限为国家行动对的新概念构成了我们称为确定性返回差距的新概念。尽管我们的依赖实例的下限是作为线性程序编写的,但我们的算法非常简单,并且在学习过程中不需要解决这样的优化问题。他们的设计和分析采用了新颖的想法,包括图理论概念,例如最小流量和最大削减,我们认为这为这个问题提供了新的启示。
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我们研究了随机的最短路径(SSP)问题,其中代理商必须以最短的预计成本达到目标状态。在问题的学习制定中,代理商没有关于模型的成本和动态的知识。她反复与k $剧集的型号交互,并且必须尽量减少她的遗憾。在这项工作中,我们表明这个设置的Minimax遗憾是$ \ widetilde o(\ sqrt {(b_ \ star ^ 2 + b_ \ star)| s | a | a | k})$ why $ b_ \ star $ a符合来自任何州的最佳政策的预期成本,$ S $是状态空间,$ a $是行动空间。此相匹配的$ \欧米茄(\ SQRT {B_ \星^ 2 | S | |甲| K})$下界Rosenberg等人的。 [2020]对于$ b_ \ star \ ge 1 $,并改善了他们的遗憾,以\ sqrt {| s |} $ \ you的遗憾。对于$ b_ \ star <1 $我们证明$ \ omega的匹配下限(\ sqrt {b_ \ star | s | a | a | k})$。我们的算法基于SSP的新颖减少到有限地平线MDP。为此,我们为有限地域设置提供了一种算法,其前期遗憾遗憾地取决于最佳政策的预期成本,并且仅对地平线上的对数。
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路径计划是设计机器人行为的关键算法方法。基于抽样的方法,例如快速探索随机树(RRT)或概率路线图,是针对路径计划问题的突出算法解决方案。尽管其指数收敛速率,RRT只能找到次优路径。另一方面,$ \ textrm {rrt}^*$是RRT广泛​​使用的扩展名,保证了寻找最佳路径的概率完整性,但在复杂环境中缓慢收敛而在实践中遭受痛苦。此外,现实世界中的机器人环境通常是可观察到的,或者描述的动力学不好,施放了$ \ textrm {rrt}^*$在复杂任务中的应用。本文研究了用于机器人路径计划的流行蒙特卡洛树搜索(MCTS)算法的新型算法公式。值得注意的是,我们通过分析和证明其指数的收敛速率(MCPP)在完全可观察到的马尔可夫决策过程(MDP)的一部分中,并证明其指数收敛速率,而另一部分则是其概率的完整性假设有限的距离可观察性(证明草图),在部分可观察的MDP(POMDP)中找到可行的路径。我们的算法贡献使我们能够采用最近提出的MCT的变体,并具有不同的勘探策略来进行机器人路径计划。我们在模拟的2D和3D环境中进行了7度自由度(DOF)操纵器以及现实世界机器人路径计划任务中的实验评估,证明了MCPP在POMDP任务中的优势。
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我们研究了标准匪徒问题的扩展,其中有很多专家。多层专家按一层进行选择,只有最后一层的专家才能发挥作用。学习政策的目的是最大程度地减少该等级专家环境中的遗憾。我们首先分析了总遗憾随着层数线性增长的案例。然后,我们关注的是所有专家都在施加上层信心(UCB)策略,并在不同情况下给出了几个子线上界限。最后,我们设计了一些实验,以帮助对分层UCB结构的一般情况进行遗憾分析,并显示我们理论结果的实际意义。本文提供了许多有关合理层次决策结构的见解。
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For undiscounted reinforcement learning in Markov decision processes (MDPs) we consider the total regret of a learning algorithm with respect to an optimal policy. In order to describe the transition structure of an MDP we propose a new parameter: An MDP has diameter D if for any pair of states s, s there is a policy which moves from s to s in at most D steps (on average). We present a reinforcement learning algorithm with total regret Õ(DS √AT ) after T steps for any unknown MDP with S states, A actions per state, and diameter D. This bound holds with high probability. We also present a corresponding lower bound of Ω( √ DSAT ) on the total regret of any learning algorithm.
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Imperfect information games (IIG) are games in which each player only partially observes the current game state. We study how to learn $\epsilon$-optimal strategies in a zero-sum IIG through self-play with trajectory feedback. We give a problem-independent lower bound $\mathcal{O}(H(A_{\mathcal{X}}+B_{\mathcal{Y}})/\epsilon^2)$ on the required number of realizations to learn these strategies with high probability, where $H$ is the length of the game, $A_{\mathcal{X}}$ and $B_{\mathcal{Y}}$ are the total number of actions for the two players. We also propose two Follow the Regularize leader (FTRL) algorithms for this setting: Balanced-FTRL which matches this lower bound, but requires the knowledge of the information set structure beforehand to define the regularization; and Adaptive-FTRL which needs $\mathcal{O}(H^2(A_{\mathcal{X}}+B_{\mathcal{Y}})/\epsilon^2)$ plays without this requirement by progressively adapting the regularization to the observations.
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