Many machine learning problems encode their data as a matrix with a possibly very large number of rows and columns. In several applications like neuroscience, image compression or deep reinforcement learning, the principal subspace of such a matrix provides a useful, low-dimensional representation of individual data. Here, we are interested in determining the $d$-dimensional principal subspace of a given matrix from sample entries, i.e. from small random submatrices. Although a number of sample-based methods exist for this problem (e.g. Oja's rule \citep{oja1982simplified}), these assume access to full columns of the matrix or particular matrix structure such as symmetry and cannot be combined as-is with neural networks \citep{baldi1989neural}. In this paper, we derive an algorithm that learns a principal subspace from sample entries, can be applied when the approximate subspace is represented by a neural network, and hence can be scaled to datasets with an effectively infinite number of rows and columns. Our method consists in defining a loss function whose minimizer is the desired principal subspace, and constructing a gradient estimate of this loss whose bias can be controlled. We complement our theoretical analysis with a series of experiments on synthetic matrices, the MNIST dataset \citep{lecun2010mnist} and the reinforcement learning domain PuddleWorld \citep{sutton1995generalization} demonstrating the usefulness of our approach.

Generalized Eigenvalue Problems (GEPs) encompass a range of interesting dimensionality reduction methods. Development of efficient stochastic approaches to these problems would allow them to scale to larger datasets. Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) is one example of a GEP for dimensionality reduction which has found extensive use in problems with two or more views of the data. Deep learning extensions of CCA require large mini-batch sizes, and therefore large memory consumption, in the stochastic setting to achieve good performance and this has limited its application in practice. Inspired by the Generalized Hebbian Algorithm, we develop an approach to solving stochastic GEPs in which all constraints are softly enforced by Lagrange multipliers. Then by considering the integral of this Lagrangian function, its pseudo-utility, and inspired by recent formulations of Principal Components Analysis and GEPs as games with differentiable utilities, we develop a game-theory inspired approach to solving GEPs. We show that our approaches share much of the theoretical grounding of the previous Hebbian and game theoretic approaches for the linear case but our method permits extension to general function approximators like neural networks for certain GEPs for dimensionality reduction including CCA which means our method can be used for deep multiview representation learning. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our method for solving GEPs in the stochastic setting using canonical multiview datasets and demonstrate state-of-the-art performance for optimizing Deep CCA.

我们使用张量奇异值分解（T-SVD）代数框架提出了一种新的快速流算法，用于抵抗缺失的低管级张量的缺失条目。我们展示T-SVD是三阶张量的研究型块术语分解的专业化，我们在该模型下呈现了一种算法，可以跟踪从不完全流2-D数据的可自由子模块。所提出的算法使用来自子空间的基层歧管的增量梯度下降的原理，以解决线性复杂度和时间样本的恒定存储器的张量完成问题。我们为我们的算法提供了局部预期的线性收敛结果。我们的经验结果在精确态度上具有竞争力，但在计算时间内比实际应用上的最先进的张量完成算法更快，以在有限的采样下恢复时间化疗和MRI数据。

Low-rank matrix approximations, such as the truncated singular value decomposition and the rank-revealing QR decomposition, play a central role in data analysis and scientific computing. This work surveys and extends recent research which demonstrates that randomization offers a powerful tool for performing low-rank matrix approximation. These techniques exploit modern computational architectures more fully than classical methods and open the possibility of dealing with truly massive data sets.This paper presents a modular framework for constructing randomized algorithms that compute partial matrix decompositions. These methods use random sampling to identify a subspace that captures most of the action of a matrix. The input matrix is then compressed-either explicitly or implicitly-to this subspace, and the reduced matrix is manipulated deterministically to obtain the desired low-rank factorization. In many cases, this approach beats its classical competitors in terms of accuracy, speed, and robustness. These claims are supported by extensive numerical experiments and a detailed error analysis.The specific benefits of randomized techniques depend on the computational environment. Consider the model problem of finding the k dominant components of the singular value decomposition of an m × n matrix. (i) For a dense input matrix, randomized algorithms require O(mn log(k)) floating-point operations (flops) in contrast with O(mnk) for classical algorithms. (ii) For a sparse input matrix, the flop count matches classical Krylov subspace methods, but the randomized approach is more robust and can easily be reorganized to exploit multi-processor architectures. (iii) For a matrix that is too large to fit in fast memory, the randomized techniques require only a constant number of passes over the data, as opposed to O(k) passes for classical algorithms. In fact, it is sometimes possible to perform matrix approximation with a single pass over the data.

In the classical setting of self-selection, the goal is to learn $k$ models, simultaneously from observations $(x^{(i)}, y^{(i)})$ where $y^{(i)}$ is the output of one of $k$ underlying models on input $x^{(i)}$. In contrast to mixture models, where we observe the output of a randomly selected model, here the observed model depends on the outputs themselves, and is determined by some known selection criterion. For example, we might observe the highest output, the smallest output, or the median output of the $k$ models. In known-index self-selection, the identity of the observed model output is observable; in unknown-index self-selection, it is not. Self-selection has a long history in Econometrics and applications in various theoretical and applied fields, including treatment effect estimation, imitation learning, learning from strategically reported data, and learning from markets at disequilibrium. In this work, we present the first computationally and statistically efficient estimation algorithms for the most standard setting of this problem where the models are linear. In the known-index case, we require poly$(1/\varepsilon, k, d)$ sample and time complexity to estimate all model parameters to accuracy $\varepsilon$ in $d$ dimensions, and can accommodate quite general selection criteria. In the more challenging unknown-index case, even the identifiability of the linear models (from infinitely many samples) was not known. We show three results in this case for the commonly studied $\max$ self-selection criterion: (1) we show that the linear models are indeed identifiable, (2) for general $k$ we provide an algorithm with poly$(d) \exp(\text{poly}(k))$ sample and time complexity to estimate the regression parameters up to error $1/\text{poly}(k)$, and (3) for $k = 2$ we provide an algorithm for any error $\varepsilon$ and poly$(d, 1/\varepsilon)$ sample and time complexity.

We propose an efficient method for approximating natural gradient descent in neural networks which we call Kronecker-factored Approximate Curvature (K-FAC). K-FAC is based on an efficiently invertible approximation of a neural network's Fisher information matrix which is neither diagonal nor low-rank, and in some cases is completely non-sparse. It is derived by approximating various large blocks of the Fisher (corresponding to entire layers) as being the Kronecker product of two much smaller matrices. While only several times more expensive to compute than the plain stochastic gradient, the updates produced by K-FAC make much more progress optimizing the objective, which results in an algorithm that can be much faster than stochastic gradient descent with momentum in practice. And unlike some previously proposed approximate natural-gradient/Newton methods which use high-quality non-diagonal curvature matrices (such as Hessian-free optimization), K-FAC works very well in highly stochastic optimization regimes. This is because the cost of storing and inverting K-FAC's approximation to the curvature matrix does not depend on the amount of data used to estimate it, which is a feature typically associated only with diagonal or low-rank approximations to the curvature matrix.

我们介绍了一种改进政策改进的方法，该方法在基于价值的强化学习（RL）的贪婪方法与基于模型的RL的典型计划方法之间进行了插值。新方法建立在几何视野模型（GHM，也称为伽马模型）的概念上，该模型对给定策略的折现状态验证分布进行了建模。我们表明，我们可以通过仔细的基本策略GHM的仔细组成，而无需任何其他学习，可以评估任何非马尔科夫策略，以固定的概率在一组基本马尔可夫策略之间切换。然后，我们可以将广义政策改进（GPI）应用于此类非马尔科夫政策的收集，以获得新的马尔可夫政策，通常将其表现优于其先驱。我们对这种方法提供了彻底的理论分析，开发了转移和标准RL的应用，并在经验上证明了其对标准GPI的有效性，对充满挑战的深度RL连续控制任务。我们还提供了GHM培训方法的分析，证明了关于先前提出的方法的新型收敛结果，并显示了如何在深度RL设置中稳定训练这些模型。

展开的计算图在许多方案中出现，包括培训RNN，通过展开优化调整超级参与，以及培训学习优化器。当前在这种计算图中优化参数的方法遭受高方差梯度，偏差，慢更新或大的内存使用情况。我们介绍一种称为持久演进策略（PES）的方法，该方法将计算图分为一系列截断的展开，并在每个展开后执行基于演进策略的更新步骤。PE通过在整个展开序列上累积校正项来消除这些截断的偏差。PE允许快速参数更新，具有较低的内存使用率，是无偏的，具有合理的方差特性。我们通过实验证明了PE的优势与综合任务的渐变估计的其他几种方法相比，并表明其适用于培训学习优化器和调整超参数。

监督字典学习（SDL）是一种经典的机器学习方法，同时寻求特征提取和分类任务，不一定是先验的目标。 SDL的目的是学习类歧视性词典，这是一组潜在特征向量，可以很好地解释特征以及观察到的数据的标签。在本文中，我们提供了SDL的系统研究，包括SDL的理论，算法和应用。首先，我们提供了一个新颖的框架，该框架将“提升” SDL作为组合因子空间中的凸问题，并提出了一种低级别的投影梯度下降算法，该算法将指数成倍收敛于目标的全局最小化器。我们还制定了SDL的生成模型，并根据高参数制度提供真实参数的全局估计保证。其次，我们被视为一个非convex约束优化问题，我们为SDL提供了有效的块坐标下降算法，该算法可以保证在$ O（\ varepsilon^{ - 1}（\ log）中找到$ \ varepsilon $ - 定位点（\ varepsilon \ varepsilon^{ - 1}）^{2}）$ iterations。对于相应的生成模型，我们为受约束和正则化的最大似然估计问题建立了一种新型的非反应局部一致性结果，这可能是独立的。第三，我们将SDL应用于监督主题建模和胸部X射线图像中的肺炎检测中，以进行不平衡的文档分类。我们还提供了模拟研究，以证明当最佳的重建性和最佳判别词典之间存在差异时，SDL变得更加有效。

强化学习的最新出现为使用这些算法计算的参数估计值创造了强大的统计推断方法的需求。现有的在线学习中统计推断的方法仅限于涉及独立采样观察的设置，而现有的强化学习中统计推断方法（RL）仅限于批处理设置。在线引导程序是一种灵活，有效的方法，用于线性随机近似算法中的统计推断，但在涉及Markov噪声（例如RL）的设置中，其功效尚未探索。在本文中，我们研究了在线引导方法在RL中的统计推断的使用。特别是，我们专注于时间差异（TD）学习和梯度TD（GTD）学习算法，它们本身就是马尔可夫噪声下线性随机近似的特殊实例。该方法在策略评估中的统计推断上表明该方法在分布上是一致的，并且包括数值实验，以证明该算法在跨一系列实际RL环境中在统计推断任务上的有效性。

量子哈密顿学习和量子吉布斯采样的双重任务与物理和化学中的许多重要问题有关。在低温方案中，这些任务的算法通常会遭受施状能力，例如因样本或时间复杂性差而遭受。为了解决此类韧性，我们将量子自然梯度下降的概括引入了参数化的混合状态，并提供了稳健的一阶近似算法，即量子 - 固定镜下降。我们使用信息几何学和量子计量学的工具证明了双重任务的数据样本效率，因此首次将经典Fisher效率的开创性结果推广到变异量子算法。我们的方法扩展了以前样品有效的技术，以允许模型选择的灵活性，包括基于量子汉密尔顿的量子模型，包括基于量子的模型，这些模型可能会规避棘手的时间复杂性。我们的一阶算法是使用经典镜下降二元性的新型量子概括得出的。两种结果都需要特殊的度量选择，即Bogoliubov-Kubo-Mori度量。为了从数值上测试我们提出的算法，我们将它们的性能与现有基准进行了关于横向场ISING模型的量子Gibbs采样任务的现有基准。最后，我们提出了一种初始化策略，利用几何局部性来建模状态的序列（例如量子 - 故事过程）的序列。我们从经验上证明了它在实际和想象的时间演化的经验上，同时定义了更广泛的潜在应用。

最近的一些实证研究表明，重要的机器学习任务，例如训练深神网络，表现出低级别的结构，其中损耗函数仅在输入空间的几个方向上差异很大。在本文中，我们利用这种低级结构来降低基于规范梯度的方法（例如梯度下降（GD））的高计算成本。我们提出的\ emph {低率梯度下降}（lrgd）算法找到了$ \ epsilon $ - approximate的固定点$ p $ - 维功能，首先要识别$ r \ r \ leq p $重要的方向，然后估算真实的方向每次迭代的$ p $维梯度仅通过计算$ r $方向来计算定向衍生物。我们确定强烈凸和非convex目标函数的LRGD的“定向甲骨文复杂性”是$ \ Mathcal {o}（r \ log（1/\ epsilon） + rp） + rp）$ and $ \ Mathcal {o}（R /\ epsilon^2 + rp）$。当$ r \ ll p $时，这些复杂性小于$ \ mathcal {o}的已知复杂性（p \ log（1/\ epsilon））$和$ \ mathcal {o}（p/\ epsilon^2） {\ gd}的$分别在强凸和非凸口设置中。因此，LRGD显着降低了基于梯度的方法的计算成本，以实现足够低级别的功能。在分析过程中，我们还正式定义和表征精确且近似级别函数的类别。

政策梯度定理（Sutton等，2000）规定了目标政策下的累积折扣国家分配以近似梯度。实际上，基于该定理的大多数算法都打破了这一假设，引入了分布转移，该分配转移可能导致逆转溶液的收敛性。在本文中，我们提出了一种新的方法，可以从开始状态重建政策梯度，而无需采取特定的采样策略。可以根据梯度评论家来简化此形式的策略梯度计算，由于梯度的新钟声方程式，可以递归估算。通过使用来自差异数据流的梯度评论家的时间差异更新，我们开发了第一个以无模型方式避开分布变化问题的估计器。我们证明，在某些可实现的条件下，无论采样策略如何，我们的估计器都是公正的。我们从经验上表明，我们的技术在存在非政策样品的情况下实现了卓越的偏见变化权衡和性能。

We study the learning dynamics of self-predictive learning for reinforcement learning, a family of algorithms that learn representations by minimizing the prediction error of their own future latent representations. Despite its recent empirical success, such algorithms have an apparent defect: trivial representations (such as constants) minimize the prediction error, yet it is obviously undesirable to converge to such solutions. Our central insight is that careful designs of the optimization dynamics are critical to learning meaningful representations. We identify that a faster paced optimization of the predictor and semi-gradient updates on the representation, are crucial to preventing the representation collapse. Then in an idealized setup, we show self-predictive learning dynamics carries out spectral decomposition on the state transition matrix, effectively capturing information of the transition dynamics. Building on the theoretical insights, we propose bidirectional self-predictive learning, a novel self-predictive algorithm that learns two representations simultaneously. We examine the robustness of our theoretical insights with a number of small-scale experiments and showcase the promise of the novel representation learning algorithm with large-scale experiments.

We investigate the problem of recovering a partially observed high-rank matrix whose columns obey a nonlinear structure such as a union of subspaces, an algebraic variety or grouped in clusters. The recovery problem is formulated as the rank minimization of a nonlinear feature map applied to the original matrix, which is then further approximated by a constrained non-convex optimization problem involving the Grassmann manifold. We propose two sets of algorithms, one arising from Riemannian optimization and the other as an alternating minimization scheme, both of which include first- and second-order variants. Both sets of algorithms have theoretical guarantees. In particular, for the alternating minimization, we establish global convergence and worst-case complexity bounds. Additionally, using the Kurdyka-Lojasiewicz property, we show that the alternating minimization converges to a unique limit point. We provide extensive numerical results for the recovery of union of subspaces and clustering under entry sampling and dense Gaussian sampling. Our methods are competitive with existing approaches and, in particular, high accuracy is achieved in the recovery using Riemannian second-order methods.

数据驱动的降级模型通常无法对沿坐标敏感的高维非线性系统进行准确的预测，因为这种坐标通常经常被截断，例如，通过正确的正交分解，核心成分分析和自动范围。这种系统在剪切主导的流体流中经常遇到，在剪切主导的流体流中，非正常性在障碍的生长中起着重要作用。为了解决这些问题，我们采用来自活跃子空间的想法来查找模型减少的坐标的低维系统，以平衡伴随的信息，以了解该系统的敏感性与沿轨迹的状态方差的敏感性。所得的方法是使用伴随快照（Cobras）称为协方差平衡降低，与平衡截断与状态和基于伴随的梯度协方差矩阵取代了系统gramians并遵守相同的关键转换定律。在这里，提取的坐标与可用于构建彼得罗夫 - 盖尔金还原模型的倾斜投影相关。我们提供了一种有效的基于快照的计算方法，类似于平衡的正交分解。这也导致观察到，可以单独依靠状态和梯度样品的内部产品来计算还原的坐标，从而使我们能够通过用核函数替换内部产品来找到丰富的非线性坐标。在这些坐标中，可以使用回归来学习减少的模型。我们演示了这些技术，并与简单但具有挑战性的三维系统和轴对称喷气流仿真进行比较，并具有$ 10^5 $状态变量。

强化学习算法的实用性由于相对于问题大小的规模差而受到限制，因为学习$ \ epsilon $ -optimal策略的样本复杂性为$ \ tilde {\ omega} \ left（| s | s || a || a || a || a | h^3 / \ eps^2 \ right）$在MDP的最坏情况下，带有状态空间$ S $，ACTION SPACE $ A $和HORIZON $ H $。我们考虑一类显示出低级结构的MDP，其中潜在特征未知。我们认为，价值迭代和低级别矩阵估计的自然组合导致估计误差在地平线上呈指数增长。然后，我们提供了一种新算法以及统计保证，即有效利用了对生成模型的访问，实现了$ \ tilde {o} \ left的样本复杂度（d^5（d^5（| s |+| a |）\），我们有效利用低级结构。对于等级$ d $设置的Mathrm {Poly}（h）/\ EPS^2 \ right）$，相对于$ | s |，| a | $和$ \ eps $的缩放，这是最小值的最佳。与线性和低级别MDP的文献相反，我们不需要已知的功能映射，我们的算法在计算上很简单，并且我们的结果长期存在。我们的结果提供了有关MDP对过渡内核与最佳动作值函数所需的最小低级结构假设的见解。

NYSTR \“ OM方法是提高内核方法可伸缩性的最流行技术之一。但是，它尚未与经典PCA一致的核PCA得出。在本文中，我们使用NyStr \”来得出核PCA。OM方法，从而提供了使内核PCA可扩展的少数可用选项之一。我们通过与完整方法相比，通过有限样本的置信度结合了经验重建误差，进一步研究其统计精度。该方法和绑定的行为通过在多个现实世界数据集上的计算机实验进行说明。作为该方法的应用，我们使用NyStr \“ Om方法表示内核主成分回归，作为NyStr \“ Om内核脊回归的替代方案，可用于使用核有效正规化回归。

Autoencoders are a popular model in many branches of machine learning and lossy data compression. However, their fundamental limits, the performance of gradient methods and the features learnt during optimization remain poorly understood, even in the two-layer setting. In fact, earlier work has considered either linear autoencoders or specific training regimes (leading to vanishing or diverging compression rates). Our paper addresses this gap by focusing on non-linear two-layer autoencoders trained in the challenging proportional regime in which the input dimension scales linearly with the size of the representation. Our results characterize the minimizers of the population risk, and show that such minimizers are achieved by gradient methods; their structure is also unveiled, thus leading to a concise description of the features obtained via training. For the special case of a sign activation function, our analysis establishes the fundamental limits for the lossy compression of Gaussian sources via (shallow) autoencoders. Finally, while the results are proved for Gaussian data, numerical simulations on standard datasets display the universality of the theoretical predictions.

Many problems in machine learning involve bilevel optimization (BLO), including hyperparameter optimization, meta-learning, and dataset distillation. Bilevel problems consist of two nested sub-problems, called the outer and inner problems, respectively. In practice, often at least one of these sub-problems is overparameterized. In this case, there are many ways to choose among optima that achieve equivalent objective values. Inspired by recent studies of the implicit bias induced by optimization algorithms in single-level optimization, we investigate the implicit bias of gradient-based algorithms for bilevel optimization. We delineate two standard BLO methods -- cold-start and warm-start -- and show that the converged solution or long-run behavior depends to a large degree on these and other algorithmic choices, such as the hypergradient approximation. We also show that the inner solutions obtained by warm-start BLO can encode a surprising amount of information about the outer objective, even when the outer parameters are low-dimensional. We believe that implicit bias deserves as central a role in the study of bilevel optimization as it has attained in the study of single-level neural net optimization.