转移学习旨在通过从源域转移知识来学习目标域的分类器。但是,由于两个主要问题:特征差异和分配差异,在实践中,转移学习可能是一个非常困难的问题。在本文中,我们提出了一个名为TLF的框架,该框架通过从具有许多标记记录的源域中传输知识来为目标域构建一个只有少量标记培训记录的分类器。尽管现有的方法通常集中在一个问题上,而将另一个问题留在进一步的工作中,但TLF能够同时处理这两个问题。在TLF中,我们通过识别作为桥接域的枢轴的共享标签分布来减轻特征差异。我们通过同时优化域之间的结构风险功能,联合分布以及边缘分布的基础一致性来处理分布差异。此外,对于歧管一致性,我们通过识别记录的k最近邻居来利用其内在属性,其中k的值在tlf中自动确定。此外,由于不需要负转移,因此我们仅考虑在知识传输过程中属于源枢轴的源记录。我们评估了七个公共可用天然数据集的TLF,并将TLF的性能与14个最先进技术的性能进行比较。我们还评估了TLF在某些具有挑战性的情况下的有效性。我们的实验结果,包括统计标志测试和Nemenyi测试分析,表明所提出的框架比最先进的技术具有明显的优势。
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虽然在许多域内生成并提供了大量的未标记数据,但对视觉数据的自动理解的需求高于以往任何时候。大多数现有机器学习模型通常依赖于大量标记的训练数据来实现高性能。不幸的是,在现实世界的应用中,不能满足这种要求。标签的数量有限,手动注释数据昂贵且耗时。通常需要将知识从现有标记域传输到新域。但是,模型性能因域之间的差异(域移位或数据集偏差)而劣化。为了克服注释的负担,域适应(DA)旨在在将知识从一个域转移到另一个类似但不同的域中时减轻域移位问题。无监督的DA(UDA)处理标记的源域和未标记的目标域。 UDA的主要目标是减少标记的源数据和未标记的目标数据之间的域差异,并在培训期间在两个域中学习域不变的表示。在本文中,我们首先定义UDA问题。其次,我们从传统方法和基于深度学习的方法中概述了不同类别的UDA的最先进的方法。最后,我们收集常用的基准数据集和UDA最先进方法的报告结果对视觉识别问题。
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Transfer learning is established as an effective technology in computer vision for leveraging rich labeled data in the source domain to build an accurate classifier for the target domain. However, most prior methods have not simultaneously reduced the difference in both the marginal distribution and conditional distribution between domains. In this paper, we put forward a novel transfer learning approach, referred to as Joint Distribution Adaptation (JDA). Specifically, JDA aims to jointly adapt both the marginal distribution and conditional distribution in a principled dimensionality reduction procedure, and construct new feature representation that is effective and robust for substantial distribution difference. Extensive experiments verify that JDA can significantly outperform several state-of-the-art methods on four types of cross-domain image classification problems.
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Transfer learning aims at improving the performance of target learners on target domains by transferring the knowledge contained in different but related source domains. In this way, the dependence on a large number of target domain data can be reduced for constructing target learners. Due to the wide application prospects, transfer learning has become a popular and promising area in machine learning. Although there are already some valuable and impressive surveys on transfer learning, these surveys introduce approaches in a relatively isolated way and lack the recent advances in transfer learning. Due to the rapid expansion of the transfer learning area, it is both necessary and challenging to comprehensively review the relevant studies. This survey attempts to connect and systematize the existing transfer learning researches, as well as to summarize and interpret the mechanisms and the strategies of transfer learning in a comprehensive way, which may help readers have a better understanding of the current research status and ideas. Unlike previous surveys, this survey paper reviews more than forty representative transfer learning approaches, especially homogeneous transfer learning approaches, from the perspectives of data and model. The applications of transfer learning are also briefly introduced. In order to show the performance of different transfer learning models, over twenty representative transfer learning models are used for experiments. The models are performed on three different datasets, i.e., Amazon Reviews, Reuters-21578, and Office-31. And the experimental results demonstrate the importance of selecting appropriate transfer learning models for different applications in practice.
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无监督的域适应性(UDA)将知识从富含标签的源域转移到一个不同但相关的全牌目标域。为了解决域移位问题,越来越多的UDA方法采用伪标签,以提高目标域的概括能力。但是,目标样品的不正确伪标签可能会在优化过程中产生次优性能,而误差积累。此外,一旦生成了伪标签,如何纠正生成的伪标签就远远没有探索过。在本文中,我们提出了一种新的方法来提高目标域中伪标签的准确性。它首先通过常规的UDA方法生成粗伪标签。然后,它迭代地利用目标样品的类相似性来改善生成的粗伪标签,并将源和目标域与改进的伪标签对齐。伪标签的准确性提高是通过首先删除不同样本,然后使用跨越树来消除阶级样品中错误的伪标签的样品。我们已将提出的方法应用于几种常规UDA方法作为附加术语。实验结果表明,所提出的方法可以提高伪标签的准确性,并进一步导致比常规基线更具歧视性和域的不变特征。
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Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) aims to transfer knowledge from a well-labeled source domain to a different but related unlabeled target domain with identical label space. Currently, the main workhorse for solving UDA is domain alignment, which has proven successful. However, it is often difficult to find an appropriate source domain with identical label space. A more practical scenario is so-called partial domain adaptation (PDA) in which the source label set or space subsumes the target one. Unfortunately, in PDA, due to the existence of the irrelevant categories in the source domain, it is quite hard to obtain a perfect alignment, thus resulting in mode collapse and negative transfer. Although several efforts have been made by down-weighting the irrelevant source categories, the strategies used tend to be burdensome and risky since exactly which irrelevant categories are unknown. These challenges motivate us to find a relatively simpler alternative to solve PDA. To achieve this, we first provide a thorough theoretical analysis, which illustrates that the target risk is bounded by both model smoothness and between-domain discrepancy. Considering the difficulty of perfect alignment in solving PDA, we turn to focus on the model smoothness while discard the riskier domain alignment to enhance the adaptability of the model. Specifically, we instantiate the model smoothness as a quite simple intra-domain structure preserving (IDSP). To our best knowledge, this is the first naive attempt to address the PDA without domain alignment. Finally, our empirical results on multiple benchmark datasets demonstrate that IDSP is not only superior to the PDA SOTAs by a significant margin on some benchmarks (e.g., +10% on Cl->Rw and +8% on Ar->Rw ), but also complementary to domain alignment in the standard UDA
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Deep domain adaptation has emerged as a new learning technique to address the lack of massive amounts of labeled data. Compared to conventional methods, which learn shared feature subspaces or reuse important source instances with shallow representations, deep domain adaptation methods leverage deep networks to learn more transferable representations by embedding domain adaptation in the pipeline of deep learning. There have been comprehensive surveys for shallow domain adaptation, but few timely reviews the emerging deep learning based methods. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive survey of deep domain adaptation methods for computer vision applications with four major contributions. First, we present a taxonomy of different deep domain adaptation scenarios according to the properties of data that define how two domains are diverged. Second, we summarize deep domain adaptation approaches into several categories based on training loss, and analyze and compare briefly the state-of-the-art methods under these categories. Third, we overview the computer vision applications that go beyond image classification, such as face recognition, semantic segmentation and object detection. Fourth, some potential deficiencies of current methods and several future directions are highlighted.
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由于有效的检索速度和储存率低,因此学习哈希已被广泛用于视觉检索任务。但是,现有的哈希方法假定查询和检索样品位于同一域内的均匀特征空间中。结果,它们不能直接应用于异质的跨域检索。在本文中,我们提出了一个广义图像转移检索(GITR)问题,该问题遇到了两个关键的瓶颈:1)查询和检索样品可能来自不同的域,导致不可避免的{域分布gap}; 2)两个域的特征可能是异质的或未对准的,从而增加了{特征差距}。为了解决GITR问题,我们提出了一个不对称的转移哈希(ATH)框架,其无监督/半监督/监督的实现。具体而言,ATH通过两个不对称的哈希函数之间的差异来表征域分布差距,并借助于跨域数据构建的新型自适应双分部分图,从而最小化特征差距。通过共同优化不对称的哈希功能和两分图,不仅可以实现知识转移,而且还可以避免由特征比对引起的信息损失。同时,为了减轻负转移,通过涉及域亲和图来保留单域数据的内在几何结构。对不同GITR子任务下的单域和跨域基准测试的广泛实验表明,与最新的哈希方法相比,我们的ATH方法的优越性。
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最近的智能故障诊断(IFD)的进展大大依赖于深度代表学习和大量标记数据。然而,机器通常以各种工作条件操作,或者目标任务具有不同的分布,其中包含用于训练的收集数据(域移位问题)。此外,目标域中的新收集的测试数据通常是未标记的,导致基于无监督的深度转移学习(基于UDTL为基础的)IFD问题。虽然它已经实现了巨大的发展,但标准和开放的源代码框架以及基于UDTL的IFD的比较研究尚未建立。在本文中,我们根据不同的任务,构建新的分类系统并对基于UDTL的IFD进行全面审查。对一些典型方法和数据集的比较分析显示了基于UDTL的IFD中的一些开放和基本问题,这很少研究,包括特征,骨干,负转移,物理前导等的可转移性,强调UDTL的重要性和再现性 - 基于IFD,整个测试框架将发布给研究界以促进未来的研究。总之,发布的框架和比较研究可以作为扩展界面和基本结果,以便对基于UDTL的IFD进行新的研究。代码框架可用于\ url {https:/github.com/zhaozhibin/udtl}。
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半监督域适应(SSDA)是一种具有挑战性的问题,需要克服1)以朝向域的较差的数据和2)分布换档的方法。不幸的是,由于培训数据偏差朝标标样本训练,域适应(DA)和半监督学习(SSL)方法的简单组合通常无法解决这两个目的。在本文中,我们介绍了一种自适应结构学习方法,以规范SSL和DA的合作。灵感来自多视图学习,我们建议的框架由共享特征编码器网络和两个分类器网络组成,用于涉及矛盾的目的。其中,其中一个分类器被应用于组目标特征以提高级别的密度,扩大了鲁棒代表学习的分类集群的间隙。同时,其他分类器作为符号器,试图散射源功能以增强决策边界的平滑度。目标聚类和源扩展的迭代使目标特征成为相应源点的扩张边界内的封闭良好。对于跨域特征对齐和部分标记的数据学习的联合地址,我们应用最大平均差异(MMD)距离最小化和自培训(ST)将矛盾结构投影成共享视图以进行可靠的最终决定。对标准SSDA基准的实验结果包括Domainnet和Office-Home,展示了我们对最先进的方法的方法的准确性和稳健性。
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无监督域适应(UDA)旨在将知识从相关但不同的良好标记的源域转移到新的未标记的目标域。大多数现有的UDA方法需要访问源数据,因此当数据保密而不相配在隐私问题时,不适用。本文旨在仅使用培训的分类模型来解决现实设置,而不是访问源数据。为了有效地利用适应源模型,我们提出了一种新颖的方法,称为源假设转移(拍摄),其通过将目标数据特征拟合到冻结源分类模块(表示分类假设)来学习目标域的特征提取模块。具体而言,拍摄挖掘出于特征提取模块的信息最大化和自我监督学习,以确保目标特征通过同一假设与看不见的源数据的特征隐式对齐。此外,我们提出了一种新的标签转移策略,它基于预测的置信度(标签信息),然后采用半监督学习来将目标数据分成两个分裂,然后提高目标域中的较为自信预测的准确性。如果通过拍摄获得预测,我们表示标记转移为拍摄++。关于两位数分类和对象识别任务的广泛实验表明,拍摄和射击++实现了与最先进的结果超越或相当的结果,展示了我们对各种视域适应问题的方法的有效性。代码可用于\ url {https://github.com/tim-learn/shot-plus}。
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域适应性是现代机器学习中的一种流行范式,旨在解决培训或验证数据集之间具有用于学习和测试分类器(源域)和潜在的大型未标记数据集的培训或验证数据集之间的分歧问题,其中利用了模型(目标域)(目标域)(目标域) 。任务是找到源数据集的源和目标数据集的这种常见表示,其中源数据集提供了培训的信息,因此可以最大程度地减少来源和目标之间的差异。目前,最流行的领域适应性解决方案是基于训练神经网络,这些神经网络结合了分类和对抗性学习模块,这些模块是饥饿的,通常很难训练。我们提出了一种称为域适应性主成分分析(DAPCA)的方法,该方法发现线性减少的数据表示有助于解决域适应任务。 DAPCA基于数据点对之间引入正权重,并概括了主成分分析的监督扩展。 DAPCA代表一种迭代算法,因此在每次迭代中都解决了一个简单的二次优化问题。保证算法的收敛性,并且在实践中的迭代次数很少。我们验证了先前提出的用于解决域适应任务的基准的建议算法,还显示了在生物医学应用中对单细胞法数据集进行分析中使用DAPCA的好处。总体而言,考虑到源域和目标域之间可能的差异,DAPCA可以作为许多机器学习应用程序中有用的预处理步骤。
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无监督的域适应(UDA)显示出近年来工作条件下的轴承故障诊断的显着结果。但是,大多数UDA方法都不考虑数据的几何结构。此外,通常应用全局域适应技术,这忽略了子域之间的关系。本文通过呈现新的深亚域适应图卷积神经网络(DSAGCN)来解决提到的挑战,具有两个关键特性:首先,采用图形卷积神经网络(GCNN)来模拟数据结构。二,对抗域适应和局部最大平均差异(LMMD)方法同时应用,以对准子域的分布并降低相关子域和全局域之间的结构差异。 CWRU和Paderborn轴承数据集用于验证DSAGCN方法的比较模型之间的效率和优越性。实验结果表明,将结构化子域与域适应方法对准,以获得无监督故障诊断的准确数据驱动模型。
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域的适应性(DA)旨在将知识从标记的源域中学习的知识转移到未标记或标记较小但相关的目标域的知识。理想情况下,源和目标分布应彼此平等地对齐,以实现公正的知识转移。但是,由于源和目标域中注释数据的数量之间存在显着不平衡,通常只有目标分布与源域保持一致,从而使不必要的源特定知识适应目标域,即偏置域的适应性。为了解决此问题,在这项工作中,我们通过对基于对抗性的DA方法进行建模来对歧视器的不确定性进行建模,以优化无偏见转移。我们理论上分析了DA中提出的无偏可传递性学习方法的有效性。此外,为了减轻注释数据不平衡的影响,我们利用了目标域中未标记样品的伪标签选择的估计不确定性,这有助于实现更好的边际和条件分布在域之间的分布。对各种DA基准数据集的广泛实验结果表明,可以轻松地将所提出的方法纳入各种基于对抗性的DA方法中,从而实现最新的性能。
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睡眠分期在诊断和治疗睡眠障碍中非常重要。最近,已经提出了许多数据驱动的深度学习模型,用于自动睡眠分期。他们主要在一个大型公共标签的睡眠数据集上训练该模型,并在较小的主题上对其进行测试。但是,他们通常认为火车和测试数据是从相同的分布中绘制的,这可能在现实世界中不存在。最近已经开发了无监督的域适应性(UDA)来处理此域移位问题。但是,以前用于睡眠分期的UDA方法具有两个主要局限性。首先,他们依靠一个完全共享的模型来对齐,该模型可能会在功能提取过程中丢失特定于域的信息。其次,它们仅在全球范围内将源和目标分布对齐,而无需考虑目标域中的类信息,从而阻碍了测试时模型的分类性能。在这项工作中,我们提出了一个名为Adast的新型对抗性学习框架,以解决未标记的目标域中的域转移问题。首先,我们开发了一个未共享的注意机制,以保留两个领域中的域特异性特征。其次,我们设计了一种迭代自我训练策略,以通过目标域伪标签提高目标域上的分类性能。我们还建议双重分类器,以提高伪标签的鲁棒性和质量。在六个跨域场景上的实验结果验证了我们提出的框架的功效及其优于最先进的UDA方法。源代码可在https://github.com/emadeldeen24/adast上获得。
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Dataset scaling, also known as normalization, is an essential preprocessing step in a machine learning pipeline. It is aimed at adjusting attributes scales in a way that they all vary within the same range. This transformation is known to improve the performance of classification models, but there are several scaling techniques to choose from, and this choice is not generally done carefully. In this paper, we execute a broad experiment comparing the impact of 5 scaling techniques on the performances of 20 classification algorithms among monolithic and ensemble models, applying them to 82 publicly available datasets with varying imbalance ratios. Results show that the choice of scaling technique matters for classification performance, and the performance difference between the best and the worst scaling technique is relevant and statistically significant in most cases. They also indicate that choosing an inadequate technique can be more detrimental to classification performance than not scaling the data at all. We also show how the performance variation of an ensemble model, considering different scaling techniques, tends to be dictated by that of its base model. Finally, we discuss the relationship between a model's sensitivity to the choice of scaling technique and its performance and provide insights into its applicability on different model deployment scenarios. Full results and source code for the experiments in this paper are available in a GitHub repository.\footnote{https://github.com/amorimlb/scaling\_matters}
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Labeling a module defective or non-defective is an expensive task. Hence, there are often limits on how much-labeled data is available for training. Semi-supervised classifiers use far fewer labels for training models, but there are numerous semi-supervised methods, including self-labeling, co-training, maximal-margin, and graph-based methods, to name a few. Only a handful of these methods have been tested in SE for (e.g.) predicting defects and even that, those tests have been on just a handful of projects. This paper takes a wide range of 55 semi-supervised learners and applies these to over 714 projects. We find that semi-supervised "co-training methods" work significantly better than other approaches. However, co-training needs to be used with caution since the specific choice of co-training methods needs to be carefully selected based on a user's specific goals. Also, we warn that a commonly-used co-training method ("multi-view"-- where different learners get different sets of columns) does not improve predictions (while adding too much to the run time costs 11 hours vs. 1.8 hours). Those cautions stated, we find using these "co-trainers," we can label just 2.5% of data, then make predictions that are competitive to those using 100% of the data. It is an open question worthy of future work to test if these reductions can be seen in other areas of software analytics. All the codes used and datasets analyzed during the current study are available in the https://GitHub.com/Suvodeep90/Semi_Supervised_Methods.
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Unlike human learning, machine learning often fails to handle changes between training (source) and test (target) input distributions. Such domain shifts, common in practical scenarios, severely damage the performance of conventional machine learning methods. Supervised domain adaptation methods have been proposed for the case when the target data have labels, including some that perform very well despite being "frustratingly easy" to implement. However, in practice, the target domain is often unlabeled, requiring unsupervised adaptation. We propose a simple, effective, and efficient method for unsupervised domain adaptation called CORrelation ALignment (CORAL). CORAL minimizes domain shift by aligning the second-order statistics of source and target distributions, without requiring any target labels. Even though it is extraordinarily simple-it can be implemented in four lines of Matlab code-CORAL performs remarkably well in extensive evaluations on standard benchmark datasets."Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler."
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在图像分类中,获得足够的标签通常昂贵且耗时。为了解决这个问题,域适应通常提供有吸引力的选择,给出了来自类似性质但不同域的大量标记数据。现有方法主要对准单个结构提取的表示的分布,并且表示可以仅包含部分信息,例如,仅包含部分饱和度,亮度和色调信息。在这一行中,我们提出了多代表性适应,这可以大大提高跨域图像分类的分类精度,并且特别旨在对准由名为Inception Adaption Adationation模块(IAM)提取的多个表示的分布。基于此,我们呈现多色自适应网络(MRAN)来通过多表示对准完成跨域图像分类任务,该任向性可以捕获来自不同方面的信息。此外,我们扩展了最大的平均差异(MMD)来计算适应损耗。我们的方法可以通过扩展具有IAM的大多数前进模型来轻松实现,并且网络可以通过反向传播有效地培训。在三个基准图像数据集上进行的实验证明了备的有效性。代码已在https://github.com/easezyc/deep-transfer -learning上获得。
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大多数现有的多源域适配(MSDA)方法通过特征分布对准最小化多个源 - 目标域对之间的距离,从单个源设置借用的方法。但是,对于不同的源极域,对齐成对特征分布是具有挑战性的,甚至可以对MSDA进行反效率。在本文中,我们介绍了一种新颖的方法:可转让的属性学习。动机很简单:虽然不同的域可以具有急剧不同的视野,但它们包含相同的类类,其特征在一起相同的属性;因此,MSDA模型应该专注于学习目标域的最可转换的属性。采用这种方法,我们提出了域名关注一致性网络,称为DAC网。关键设计是一个特征通道注意模块,旨在识别可转移功能(属性)。重要的是,注意模块受到一致性损失的监督,这对源极和目标域之间的信道注意权重的分布施加。此外,为了促进对目标数据的鉴别特征学习,我们将伪标记与类紧凑性丢失相结合,以最小化目标特征和分类器的权重向量之间的距离。在三个MSDA基准测试中进行了广泛的实验表明,我们的DAC-NET在所有这些中实现了新的最新性能。
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