为了扩大培训数据，研究人员通常希望合并两个或更多使用不同标签方案创建的数据集。本文考虑了两个数据集，这些数据集标记了不同标签方案下的词性词性（POS）标签，并利用一个数据集的监督标签，以帮助为另一个数据集生成标签。本文进一步讨论了这种方法的理论困难，并提出了一种新型的监督架构，该架构采用变压器来解决两个完全脱节数据集的问题。结果与最初的期望和探索探索不同，以使用与不同标签合并数据集的使用。

本次调查绘制了用于分析社交媒体数据的生成方法的研究状态的广泛的全景照片（Sota）。它填补了空白，因为现有的调查文章在其范围内或被约会。我们包括两个重要方面，目前正在挖掘和建模社交媒体的重要性：动态和网络。社会动态对于了解影响影响或疾病的传播，友谊的形成，友谊的形成等，另一方面，可以捕获各种复杂关系，提供额外的洞察力和识别否则将不会被注意的重要模式。

BERT，ROBERTA或GPT-3等复杂的基于注意力的语言模型的外观已允许在许多场景中解决高度复杂的任务。但是，当应用于特定域时，这些模型会遇到相当大的困难。诸如Twitter之类的社交网络就是这种情况，Twitter是一种不断变化的信息流，以非正式和复杂的语言编写的信息流，鉴于人类的重要作用，每个信息都需要仔细评估，即使人类也需要理解。通过自然语言处理解决该领域的任务涉及严重的挑战。当将强大的最先进的多语言模型应用于这种情况下，特定语言的细微差别用来迷失翻译。为了面对这些挑战，我们提出了\ textbf {bertuit}，这是迄今为止针对西班牙语提出的较大变压器，使用Roberta Optimization进行了230m西班牙推文的大规模数据集进行了预培训。我们的动机是提供一个强大的资源，以更好地了解西班牙Twitter，并用于专注于该社交网络的应用程序，特别强调致力于解决该平台中错误信息传播的解决方案。对Bertuit进行了多个任务评估，并与M-Bert，XLM-Roberta和XLM-T进行了比较，该任务非常具有竞争性的多语言变压器。在这种情况下，使用应用程序显示了我们方法的实用性：一种可视化骗局和分析作者群体传播虚假信息的零击方法。错误的信息在英语以外的其他语言等平台上疯狂地传播，这意味着在英语说话之外转移时，变形金刚的性能可能会受到影响。

数据增强是通过转换为机器学习的人工创建数据的人工创建，是一个跨机器学习学科的研究领域。尽管它对于增加模型的概括功能很有用，但它还可以解决许多其他挑战和问题，从克服有限的培训数据到正规化目标到限制用于保护隐私的数据的数量。基于对数据扩展的目标和应用的精确描述以及现有作品的分类法，该调查涉及用于文本分类的数据增强方法，并旨在为研究人员和从业者提供简洁而全面的概述。我们将100多种方法划分为12种不同的分组，并提供最先进的参考文献来阐述哪种方法可以通过将它们相互关联，从而阐述了哪种方法。最后，提供可能构成未来工作的基础的研究观点。

当前的语言模型可以产生高质量的文本。他们只是复制他们之前看到的文本，或者他们学习了普遍的语言抽象吗？要取笑这些可能性，我们介绍了乌鸦，这是一套评估生成文本的新颖性，专注于顺序结构（n-gram）和句法结构。我们将这些分析应用于四种神经语言模型（LSTM，变压器，变换器-XL和GPT-2）。对于本地结构 - 例如，单个依赖性 - 模型生成的文本比来自每个模型的测试集的人类生成文本的基线显着不那么新颖。对于大规模结构 - 例如，总句结构 - 模型生成的文本与人生成的基线一样新颖甚至更新颖，但模型仍然有时复制，在某些情况下，在训练集中重复超过1000字超过1,000字的通道。我们还表现了广泛的手动分析，表明GPT-2的新文本通常在形态学和语法中形成良好，但具有合理的语义问题（例如，是自相矛盾）。

注释数据是用于培训和评估机器学习模型的自然语言处理中的重要成分。因此，注释具有高质量是非常理想的。但是，最近的工作表明，几个流行的数据集包含令人惊讶的注释错误或不一致之处。为了减轻此问题，多年来已经设计了许多注释错误检测方法。尽管研究人员表明他们的方法在新介绍的数据集上效果很好，但他们很少将其方法与以前的工作或同一数据集进行比较。这引起了人们对方法的一般表现的强烈关注，并且使他们的优势和劣势很难解决。因此，我们重新实现18种检测潜在注释错误的方法，并在9个英语数据集上对其进行评估，以进行文本分类以及令牌和跨度标签。此外，我们定义了统一的评估设置，包括注释错误检测任务，评估协议和一般最佳实践的新形式化。为了促进未来的研究和可重复性，我们将数据集和实施释放到易于使用和开源软件包中。

Existing techniques for training language models can be misaligned with the truth: if we train models with imitation learning, they may reproduce errors that humans make; if we train them to generate text that humans rate highly, they may output errors that human evaluators can't detect. We propose circumventing this issue by directly finding latent knowledge inside the internal activations of a language model in a purely unsupervised way. Specifically, we introduce a method for accurately answering yes-no questions given only unlabeled model activations. It works by finding a direction in activation space that satisfies logical consistency properties, such as that a statement and its negation have opposite truth values. We show that despite using no supervision and no model outputs, our method can recover diverse knowledge represented in large language models: across 6 models and 10 question-answering datasets, it outperforms zero-shot accuracy by 4\% on average. We also find that it cuts prompt sensitivity in half and continues to maintain high accuracy even when models are prompted to generate incorrect answers. Our results provide an initial step toward discovering what language models know, distinct from what they say, even when we don't have access to explicit ground truth labels.

在本文中，我们试图通过引入深度学习模型的句法归纳偏见来建立两所学校之间的联系。我们提出了两个归纳偏见的家族，一个家庭用于选区结构，另一个用于依赖性结构。选区归纳偏见鼓励深度学习模型使用不同的单位（或神经元）分别处理长期和短期信息。这种分离为深度学习模型提供了一种方法，可以从顺序输入中构建潜在的层次表示形式，即更高级别的表示由高级表示形式组成，并且可以分解为一系列低级表示。例如，在不了解地面实际结构的情况下，我们提出的模型学会通过根据其句法结构组成变量和运算符的表示来处理逻辑表达。另一方面，依赖归纳偏置鼓励模型在输入序列中找到实体之间的潜在关系。对于自然语言，潜在关系通常被建模为一个定向依赖图，其中一个单词恰好具有一个父节点和零或几个孩子的节点。将此约束应用于类似变压器的模型之后，我们发现该模型能够诱导接近人类专家注释的有向图，并且在不同任务上也优于标准变压器模型。我们认为，这些实验结果为深度学习模型的未来发展展示了一个有趣的选择。

Contextualized representation models such as ELMo (Peters et al., 2018a) and BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) have recently achieved state-of-the-art results on a diverse array of downstream NLP tasks. Building on recent token-level probing work, we introduce a novel edge probing task design and construct a broad suite of sub-sentence tasks derived from the traditional structured NLP pipeline. We probe word-level contextual representations from four recent models and investigate how they encode sentence structure across a range of syntactic, semantic, local, and long-range phenomena. We find that existing models trained on language modeling and translation produce strong representations for syntactic phenomena, but only offer comparably small improvements on semantic tasks over a non-contextual baseline.

数据增强是自然语言处理（NLP）模型的鲁棒性评估的重要组成部分，以及增强他们培训的数据的多样性。在本文中，我们呈现NL-Cogmenter，这是一种新的参与式Python的自然语言增强框架，它支持创建两个转换（对数据的修改）和过滤器（根据特定功能的数据拆分）。我们描述了框架和初始的117个变换和23个过滤器，用于各种自然语言任务。我们通过使用其几个转换来分析流行自然语言模型的鲁棒性来证明NL-Upmenter的功效。基础架构，Datacards和稳健性分析结果在NL-Augmenter存储库上公开可用（\ url {https://github.com/gem-benchmark/nl-augmenter}）。

The word alignment task, despite its prominence in the era of statistical machine translation (SMT), is niche and under-explored today. In this two-part tutorial, we argue for the continued relevance for word alignment. The first part provides a historical background to word alignment as a core component of the traditional SMT pipeline. We zero-in on GIZA++, an unsupervised, statistical word aligner with surprising longevity. Jumping forward to the era of neural machine translation (NMT), we show how insights from word alignment inspired the attention mechanism fundamental to present-day NMT. The second part shifts to a survey approach. We cover neural word aligners, showing the slow but steady progress towards surpassing GIZA++ performance. Finally, we cover the present-day applications of word alignment, from cross-lingual annotation projection, to improving translation.

我们研究了原则上的程度，原则上，语言图表表示可以补充和改进神经语言建模。通过一个由7种不同的形式主义之一的预磨削变压器和地面真相图组成的集合设置，我们发现，总体而言，语义构成结构对语言建模性能最有用 - 超越句法选区结构以及句法和语义依赖结构。此外，效果取决于语音级别的级别大大变化。总而言之，我们的调查结果指出了神经象征性语言建模的有希望的趋势，并邀请未来的研究量化不同形式主义所制作的设计选择。

We propose a unified neural network architecture and learning algorithm that can be applied to various natural language processing tasks including: part-of-speech tagging, chunking, named entity recognition, and semantic role labeling. This versatility is achieved by trying to avoid task-specific engineering and therefore disregarding a lot of prior knowledge. Instead of exploiting man-made input features carefully optimized for each task, our system learns internal representations on the basis of vast amounts of mostly unlabeled training data. This work is then used as a basis for building a freely available tagging system with good performance and minimal computational requirements.

Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) is the task of automatically detecting and correcting errors in text. The task not only includes the correction of grammatical errors, such as missing prepositions and mismatched subject-verb agreement, but also orthographic and semantic errors, such as misspellings and word choice errors respectively. The field has seen significant progress in the last decade, motivated in part by a series of five shared tasks, which drove the development of rule-based methods, statistical classifiers, statistical machine translation, and finally neural machine translation systems which represent the current dominant state of the art. In this survey paper, we condense the field into a single article and first outline some of the linguistic challenges of the task, introduce the most popular datasets that are available to researchers (for both English and other languages), and summarise the various methods and techniques that have been developed with a particular focus on artificial error generation. We next describe the many different approaches to evaluation as well as concerns surrounding metric reliability, especially in relation to subjective human judgements, before concluding with an overview of recent progress and suggestions for future work and remaining challenges. We hope that this survey will serve as comprehensive resource for researchers who are new to the field or who want to be kept apprised of recent developments.

NLP（例如基于过渡的解析）的贪婪算法容易出现误差传播。克服这个问题的一种方法是允许算法回溯并探索替代解决方案，在新证据与迄今为止探索的解决方案相矛盾的情况下。为了实施这种行为，我们使用增强学习，并在此操作获得更好的奖励的情况下让算法回溯，而不是继续探索当前的解决方案。我们在POS标签和依赖解析上测试了这一想法，并表明回溯是反对错误传播的有效手段。

自动言论（POS）标记是许多自然语言处理（NLP）任务的预处理步骤，例如名称实体识别（NER），语音处理，信息提取，单词sense sisse disampigation和Machine Translation。它已经在英语和欧洲语言方面取得了令人鼓舞的结果，但是使用印度语言，尤其是在Odia语言中，由于缺乏支持工具，资源和语言形态丰富性，因此尚未得到很好的探索。不幸的是，我们无法为ODIA找到一个开源POS标记，并且仅尝试为ODIA语言开发POS标记器的尝试。这项研究工作的主要贡献是介绍有条件的随机场（CRF）和基于深度学习的方法（CNN和双向长期短期记忆）来开发ODIA的语音部分。我们使用了一个公开访问的语料库，并用印度标准局（BIS）标签设定了数据集。但是，全球的大多数语言都使用了带有通用依赖项（UD）标签集注释的数据集。因此，要保持统一性，odia数据集应使用相同的标签集。因此，我们已经构建了一个从BIS标签集到UD标签集的简单映射。我们对CRF模型进行了各种特征集输入，观察到构造特征集的影响。基于深度学习的模型包括BI-LSTM网络，CNN网络，CRF层，角色序列信息和预训练的单词向量。通过使用卷积神经网络（CNN）和BI-LSTM网络提取角色序列信息。实施了神经序列标记模型的六种不同组合，并研究了其性能指标。已经观察到具有字符序列特征和预训练的单词矢量的BI-LSTM模型取得了显着的最新结果。

Automated Program Repair (APR) is defined as the process of fixing a bug/defect in the source code, by an automated tool. APR tools have recently experienced promising results by leveraging state-of-the-art Neural Language Processing (NLP) techniques. APR tools such as TFix and CodeXGLUE combine text-to-text transformers with software-specific techniques are outperforming alternatives, these days. However, in most APR studies the train and test sets are chosen from the same set of projects. In reality, however, APR models are meant to be generalizable to new and different projects. Therefore, there is a potential threat that reported APR models with high effectiveness perform poorly when the characteristics of the new project or its bugs are different than the training set's(Domain Shift). In this study, we first define and measure the domain shift problem in automated program repair. Then, we then propose a domain adaptation framework that can adapt an APR model for a given target project. We conduct an empirical study with three domain adaptation methods FullFineTuning, TuningWithLightWeightAdapterLayers, and CurriculumLearning using two state-of-the-art domain adaptation tools (TFix and CodeXGLUE) and two APR models on 611 bugs from 19 projects. The results show that our proposed framework can improve the effectiveness of TFix by 13.05% and CodeXGLUE by 23.4%. Another contribution of this study is the proposal of a data synthesis method to address the lack of labelled data in APR. We leverage transformers to create a bug generator model. We use the generated synthetic data to domain adapt TFix and CodeXGLUE on the projects with no data (Zero-shot learning), which results in an average improvement of 5.76% and 24.42% for TFix and CodeXGLUE, respectively.

State-of-the-art computer vision systems are trained to predict a fixed set of predetermined object categories. This restricted form of supervision limits their generality and usability since additional labeled data is needed to specify any other visual concept. Learning directly from raw text about images is a promising alternative which leverages a much broader source of supervision. We demonstrate that the simple pre-training task of predicting which caption goes with which image is an efficient and scalable way to learn SOTA image representations from scratch on a dataset of 400 million (image, text) pairs collected from the internet. After pre-training, natural language is used to reference learned visual concepts (or describe new ones) enabling zero-shot transfer of the model to downstream tasks. We study the performance of this approach by benchmarking on over 30 different existing computer vision datasets, spanning tasks such as OCR, action recognition in videos, geo-localization, and many types of fine-grained object classification. The model transfers non-trivially to most tasks and is often competitive with a fully supervised baseline without the need for any dataset specific training. For instance, we match the accuracy of the original ResNet-50 on ImageNet zero-shot without needing to use any of the 1.28 million training examples it was trained on. We release our code and pre-trained model weights at https://github.com/OpenAI/CLIP.

我们提出了一种整体方法，用于构建一个可实现的自然语言分类系统，以实现现实世界中的内容适度。这样一个系统的成功依赖于一系列精心设计和执行的步骤，包括内容分类法和标签说明的设计，数据质量控制，主动学习管道以捕获罕见事件以及使模型可靠的各种方法并避免过度拟合。我们的审核系统经过培训，可以检测一系列不希望的内容，包括性内容，可恨的内容，暴力，自我伤害和骚扰。这种方法概括为各种不同的内容分类法，可用于创建优于现成模型的高质量内容分类器。

The machine translation mechanism translates texts automatically between different natural languages, and Neural Machine Translation (NMT) has gained attention for its rational context analysis and fluent translation accuracy. However, processing low-resource languages that lack relevant training attributes like supervised data is a current challenge for Natural Language Processing (NLP). We incorporated a technique known Active Learning with the NMT toolkit Joey NMT to reach sufficient accuracy and robust predictions of low-resource language translation. With active learning, a semi-supervised machine learning strategy, the training algorithm determines which unlabeled data would be the most beneficial for obtaining labels using selected query techniques. We implemented two model-driven acquisition functions for selecting the samples to be validated. This work uses transformer-based NMT systems; baseline model (BM), fully trained model (FTM) , active learning least confidence based model (ALLCM), and active learning margin sampling based model (ALMSM) when translating English to Hindi. The Bilingual Evaluation Understudy (BLEU) metric has been used to evaluate system results. The BLEU scores of BM, FTM, ALLCM and ALMSM systems are 16.26, 22.56 , 24.54, and 24.20, respectively. The findings in this paper demonstrate that active learning techniques helps the model to converge early and improve the overall quality of the translation system.