In the cybersecurity setting, defenders are often at the mercy of their detection technologies and subject to the information and experiences that individual analysts have. In order to give defenders an advantage, it is important to understand an attacker's motivation and their likely next best action. As a first step in modeling this behavior, we introduce a security game framework that simulates interplay between attackers and defenders in a noisy environment, focusing on the factors that drive decision making for attackers and defenders in the variants of the game with full knowledge and observability, knowledge of the parameters but no observability of the state (``partial knowledge''), and zero knowledge or observability (``zero knowledge''). We demonstrate the importance of making the right assumptions about attackers, given significant differences in outcomes. Furthermore, there is a measurable trade-off between false-positives and true-positives in terms of attacker outcomes, suggesting that a more false-positive prone environment may be acceptable under conditions where true-positives are also higher.
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除了独奏游戏外,棋盘游戏至少需要其他玩家才能玩。因此,当对手失踪时,我们创建了人工智能(AI)代理商来对抗我们。这些AI代理是通过多种方式创建的,但是这些代理的一个挑战是,与我们相比,代理可以具有较高的能力。在这项工作中,我们描述了如何创建玩棋盘游戏的较弱的AI代理。我们使用Tic-Tac-toe,九名成员的莫里斯和曼卡拉,我们的技术使用了增强学习模型,代理商使用Q学习算法来学习这些游戏。我们展示了这些代理商如何学会完美地玩棋盘游戏,然后我们描述了制作这些代理商较弱版本的方法。最后,我们提供了比较AI代理的方法。
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我们调查攻击者的效果如何,当它只从受害者的行为中学习时,没有受害者的奖励。在这项工作中,当受害者的动机未知时,我们被攻击者想要行事的情景。我们认为一个启发式方法可以使用攻击者是最大化受害者政策的熵。政策通常不会被滥用,这意味着它可以通过被动地观察受害者来提取。我们以奖励无源勘探算法的形式提供这样的策略,可以在勘探阶段最大化攻击者的熵,然后在规划阶段最大化受害者的经验熵。在我们的实验中,受害者代理商通过政策熵最大化而颠覆,暗示攻击者可能无法访问受害者的奖励成功。因此,仅基于观察行为的无奖励攻击表明,即使受害者的奖励信息受到保护,攻击者的可行性也在不了解受害者的动机。
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In many real-world settings agents engage in strategic interactions with multiple opposing agents who can employ a wide variety of strategies. The standard approach for designing agents for such settings is to compute or approximate a relevant game-theoretic solution concept such as Nash equilibrium and then follow the prescribed strategy. However, such a strategy ignores any observations of opponents' play, which may indicate shortcomings that can be exploited. We present an approach for opponent modeling in multiplayer imperfect-information games where we collect observations of opponents' play through repeated interactions. We run experiments against a wide variety of real opponents and exact Nash equilibrium strategies in three-player Kuhn poker and show that our algorithm significantly outperforms all of the agents, including the exact Nash equilibrium strategies.
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Researchers have demonstrated that neural networks are vulnerable to adversarial examples and subtle environment changes, both of which one can view as a form of distribution shift. To humans, the resulting errors can look like blunders, eroding trust in these agents. In prior games research, agent evaluation often focused on the in-practice game outcomes. While valuable, such evaluation typically fails to evaluate robustness to worst-case outcomes. Prior research in computer poker has examined how to assess such worst-case performance, both exactly and approximately. Unfortunately, exact computation is infeasible with larger domains, and existing approximations rely on poker-specific knowledge. We introduce ISMCTS-BR, a scalable search-based deep reinforcement learning algorithm for learning a best response to an agent, thereby approximating worst-case performance. We demonstrate the technique in several two-player zero-sum games against a variety of agents, including several AlphaZero-based agents.
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车辆(IOV)互联网(IOV),其中互连的车辆彼此通信并在公共网络上与道路基础设施通信,具有令人市性的社会经济利益,但也造成了新的网络身体威胁。车辆攻击者的数据可以使用像蜜罐等系统使用网络威胁情报进行现实地收集。不可否认,配置蜜罐在蜜罐攻击者互动的级别和执行和监测这些蜜罐的任何产生的开销和成本之间引入权衡。我们认为,通过战略性地配置蜜罐来代表IOV的组成部分,可以实现有效的欺骗,并参与攻击者来收集网络威胁情报。在本文中,我们展示了HoneyCar,这是IOV中蜜罐欺骗的新决策支持框架。 Honeycar在国家漏洞数据库(NVD)中的常见漏洞和曝光(CVE)中发现的自主和连通车辆的已知漏洞的存储库,以计算最佳蜜罐配置策略。通过采取游戏理论方法,我们将对手交互模拟作为重复的不完美信息零和游戏,其中IOV网络管理员选择一组漏洞,以便在蜜罐中提供,并且战略攻击者选择IOV的脆弱性在不确定性下剥削。我们的调查是通过检查两种不同版本的游戏,并没有重新配置成本来证实,以赋予网络管理员来确定最佳蜜罐配置。我们在一个现实用例中评估Honeycar,以支持决策者,以确定IOV中的战略部署的最佳蜜罐配置策略。
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Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) is a recently proposed search method that combines the precision of tree search with the generality of random sampling. It has received considerable interest due to its spectacular success in the difficult problem of computer Go, but has also proved beneficial in a range of other domains. This paper is a survey of the literature to date, intended to provide a snapshot of the state of the art after the first five years of MCTS research. We outline the core algorithm's derivation, impart some structure on the many variations and enhancements that have been proposed, and summarise the results from the key game and non-game domains to which MCTS methods have been applied. A number of open research questions indicate that the field is ripe for future work.
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蒙特卡洛树搜索(MCT)是设计游戏机器人或解决顺序决策问题的强大方法。该方法依赖于平衡探索和开发的智能树搜索。MCT以模拟的形式进行随机抽样,并存储动作的统计数据,以在每个随后的迭代中做出更有教育的选择。然而,该方法已成为组合游戏的最新技术,但是,在更复杂的游戏(例如那些具有较高的分支因素或实时系列的游戏)以及各种实用领域(例如,运输,日程安排或安全性)有效的MCT应用程序通常需要其与问题有关的修改或与其他技术集成。这种特定领域的修改和混合方法是本调查的主要重点。最后一项主要的MCT调查已于2012年发布。自发布以来出现的贡献特别感兴趣。
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许多真实世界游戏包含可能影响收益,动作空间和信息状态的参数。对于参数的固定值,可以使用标准算法解决游戏。但是,在许多设置中,代理必须采取行动而不知道将提前遇到的参数的值。通常,人类在时间和资源限制的情况下必须做出决定,假设人类可以实时解决游戏是不现实的。我们提出了一个新的框架,使人类决策者能够在没有实时求解器的帮助下做出快速决策。我们展示了适用于各种情况,包括具有多个玩家的设置和不完美信息。
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防御网络攻击的计算机网络需要及时应对警报和威胁情报。关于如何响应的决定涉及基于妥协指标的多个节点跨多个节点协调动作,同时最大限度地减少对网络操作的中断。目前,PlayBooks用于自动化响应过程的部分,但通常将复杂的决策留给人类分析师。在这项工作中,我们在大型工业控制网络中提出了一种深度增强学习方法,以便在大型工业控制网络中进行自主反应和恢复。我们提出了一种基于关注的神经结构,其在保护下灵活地灵活。要培训和评估自治防御者代理,我们提出了一个适合加强学习的工业控制网络仿真环境。实验表明,学习代理可以有效减轻在执行前几个月几个月的可观察信号的进步。所提出的深度加强学习方法优于模拟中完全自动化的Playbook方法,采取更少的破坏性动作,同时在网络上保留更多节点。学习的政策对攻击者行为的变化也比PlayBook方法更加强大。
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数字化和远程连接扩大了攻击面,使网络系统更脆弱。由于攻击者变得越来越复杂和资源丰富,仅仅依赖传统网络保护,如入侵检测,防火墙和加密,不足以保护网络系统。网络弹性提供了一种新的安全范式,可以使用弹性机制来补充保护不足。一种网络弹性机制(CRM)适应了已知的或零日威胁和实际威胁和不确定性,并对他们进行战略性地响应,以便在成功攻击时保持网络系统的关键功能。反馈架构在启用CRM的在线感应,推理和致动过程中发挥关键作用。强化学习(RL)是一个重要的工具,对网络弹性的反馈架构构成。它允许CRM提供有限或没有事先知识和攻击者的有限攻击的顺序响应。在这项工作中,我们审查了Cyber​​恢复力的RL的文献,并讨论了对三种主要类型的漏洞,即姿势有关,与信息相关的脆弱性的网络恢复力。我们介绍了三个CRM的应用领域:移动目标防御,防守网络欺骗和辅助人类安全技术。 RL算法也有漏洞。我们解释了RL的三个漏洞和目前的攻击模型,其中攻击者针对环境与代理商之间交换的信息:奖励,国家观察和行动命令。我们展示攻击者可以通过最低攻击努力来欺骗RL代理商学习邪恶的政策。最后,我们讨论了RL为基于RL的CRM的网络安全和恢复力和新兴应用的未来挑战。
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Reinforcement Learning (RL) algorithms have been successfully applied to real world situations like illegal smuggling, poaching, deforestation, climate change, airport security, etc. These scenarios can be framed as Stackelberg security games (SSGs) where defenders and attackers compete to control target resources. The algorithm's competency is assessed by which agent is controlling the targets. This review investigates modeling of SSGs in RL with a focus on possible improvements of target representations in RL algorithms.
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游戏理论到目前为止在各个领域都发现了许多应用,包括经济学,工业,法学和人工智能,每个玩家都只关心自己对非合作或合作方式的兴趣,但对其他玩家没有明显的恶意。但是,在许多实际应用中,例如扑克,国际象棋,逃避者追求,毒品拦截,海岸警卫队,网络安全和国防,球员通常都具有对抗性立场,也就是说,每个球员的自私行动不可避免地或故意造成损失或对其他球员造成严重破坏。沿着这条线,本文对在对抗性游戏中广泛使用的三种主要游戏模型(即零和零正常形式和广泛形式游戏,stackelberg(Security)游戏,零和差异游戏)提供了系统的调查。观点,包括游戏模型的基本知识,(近似)平衡概念,问题分类,研究前沿,(近似)最佳策略寻求技术,普遍的算法和实际应用。最后,还讨论了有关对抗性游戏的有希望的未来研究方向。
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While Nash equilibrium has emerged as the central game-theoretic solution concept, many important games contain several Nash equilibria and we must determine how to select between them in order to create real strategic agents. Several Nash equilibrium refinement concepts have been proposed and studied for sequential imperfect-information games, the most prominent being trembling-hand perfect equilibrium, quasi-perfect equilibrium, and recently one-sided quasi-perfect equilibrium. These concepts are robust to certain arbitrarily small mistakes, and are guaranteed to always exist; however, we argue that neither of these is the correct concept for developing strong agents in sequential games of imperfect information. We define a new equilibrium refinement concept for extensive-form games called observable perfect equilibrium in which the solution is robust over trembles in publicly-observable action probabilities (not necessarily over all action probabilities that may not be observable by opposing players). Observable perfect equilibrium correctly captures the assumption that the opponent is playing as rationally as possible given mistakes that have been observed (while previous solution concepts do not). We prove that observable perfect equilibrium is always guaranteed to exist, and demonstrate that it leads to a different solution than the prior extensive-form refinements in no-limit poker. We expect observable perfect equilibrium to be a useful equilibrium refinement concept for modeling many important imperfect-information games of interest in artificial intelligence.
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钢筋学习(RL)最近在许多人工智能应用中取得了巨大成功。 RL的许多最前沿应用涉及多个代理,例如,下棋和去游戏,自主驾驶和机器人。不幸的是,古典RL构建的框架不适合多代理学习,因为它假设代理的环境是静止的,并且没有考虑到其他代理的适应性。在本文中,我们介绍了动态环境中的多代理学习的随机游戏模型。我们专注于随机游戏的简单和独立学习动态的发展:每个代理商都是近视,并为其他代理商的战略选择最佳响应类型的行动,而不与对手进行任何协调。为随机游戏开发收敛最佳响应类型独立学习动态有限的进展。我们展示了我们最近提出的简单和独立的学习动态,可保证零汇率随机游戏的融合,以及对此设置中的动态多代理学习的其他同时算法的审查。一路上,我们还重新审视了博弈论和RL文学的一些古典结果,以适应我们独立的学习动态的概念贡献,以及我们分析的数学诺克特。我们希望这篇审查文件成为在博弈论中研究独立和自然学习动态的重新训练的推动力,对于具有动态环境的更具挑战性的环境。
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尽管自1970年代以来就已经知道,普通付款游戏中的全球最佳策略概况是纳什均衡,但全球最优性是严格的要求,它限制了结果的适用性。在这项工作中,我们表明任何本地最佳的对称策略概况也是(全局)NASH平衡。此外,我们证明了这一结果对通用收益和本地最佳的扰动是可靠的。应用于机器学习,我们的结果为任何梯度方法提供了全球保证,该方法在对称策略空间中找到了局部最佳。尽管该结果表明单方面偏差的稳定性,但我们仍然确定了广泛的游戏类别,这些游戏混合了当地的最佳选择,在不对称的偏差下是不稳定的。我们通过在一系列对称游戏中运行学习算法来分析不稳定性的普遍性,并通过讨论结果对多代理RL,合作逆RL和分散的POMDP的适用性来得出结论。
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深度加强学习(RL)的最新进展导致许多2人零和游戏中的相当大的进展,如去,扑克和星际争霸。这种游戏的纯粹对抗性质允许概念上简单地应用R1方法。然而,现实世界的设置是许多代理商,代理交互是复杂的共同利益和竞争方面的混合物。我们认为外交,一个旨在突出由多种代理交互导致的困境的7人棋盘游戏。它还具有大型组合动作空间和同时移动,这对RL算法具有具有挑战性。我们提出了一个简单但有效的近似最佳响应操作员,旨在处理大型组合动作空间并同时移动。我们还介绍了一系列近似虚构游戏的政策迭代方法。通过这些方法,我们成功地将RL申请到外交:我们认为我们的代理商令人信服地令人信服地表明,游戏理论均衡分析表明新过程产生了一致的改进。
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We propose a multi-agent reinforcement learning dynamics, and analyze its convergence properties in infinite-horizon discounted Markov potential games. We focus on the independent and decentralized setting, where players can only observe the realized state and their own reward in every stage. Players do not have knowledge of the game model, and cannot coordinate with each other. In each stage of our learning dynamics, players update their estimate of a perturbed Q-function that evaluates their total contingent payoff based on the realized one-stage reward in an asynchronous manner. Then, players independently update their policies by incorporating a smoothed optimal one-stage deviation strategy based on the estimated Q-function. A key feature of the learning dynamics is that the Q-function estimates are updated at a faster timescale than the policies. We prove that the policies induced by our learning dynamics converge to a stationary Nash equilibrium in Markov potential games with probability 1. Our results demonstrate that agents can reach a stationary Nash equilibrium in Markov potential games through simple learning dynamics under the minimum information environment.
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具有很多玩家的非合作和合作游戏具有许多应用程序,但是当玩家数量增加时,通常仍然很棘手。由Lasry和Lions以及Huang,Caines和Malham \'E引入的,平均野外运动会(MFGS)依靠平均场外近似值,以使玩家数量可以成长为无穷大。解决这些游戏的传统方法通常依赖于以完全了解模型的了解来求解部分或随机微分方程。最近,增强学习(RL)似乎有望解决复杂问题。通过组合MFGS和RL,我们希望在人口规模和环境复杂性方面能够大规模解决游戏。在这项调查中,我们回顾了有关学习MFG中NASH均衡的最新文献。我们首先确定最常见的设置(静态,固定和进化)。然后,我们为经典迭代方法(基于最佳响应计算或策略评估)提供了一个通用框架,以确切的方式解决MFG。在这些算法和与马尔可夫决策过程的联系的基础上,我们解释了如何使用RL以无模型的方式学习MFG解决方案。最后,我们在基准问题上介绍了数值插图,并以某些视角得出结论。
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We study the problem of training a principal in a multi-agent general-sum game using reinforcement learning (RL). Learning a robust principal policy requires anticipating the worst possible strategic responses of other agents, which is generally NP-hard. However, we show that no-regret dynamics can identify these worst-case responses in poly-time in smooth games. We propose a framework that uses this policy evaluation method for efficiently learning a robust principal policy using RL. This framework can be extended to provide robustness to boundedly rational agents too. Our motivating application is automated mechanism design: we empirically demonstrate our framework learns robust mechanisms in both matrix games and complex spatiotemporal games. In particular, we learn a dynamic tax policy that improves the welfare of a simulated trade-and-barter economy by 15%, even when facing previously unseen boundedly rational RL taxpayers.
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