We present Masked Audio-Video Learners (MAViL) to train audio-visual representations. Our approach learns with three complementary forms of self-supervision: (1) reconstruction of masked audio and video input data, (2) intra- and inter-modal contrastive learning with masking, and (3) self-training by reconstructing joint audio-video contextualized features learned from the first two objectives. Pre-training with MAViL not only enables the model to perform well in audio-visual classification and retrieval tasks but also improves representations of each modality in isolation, without using information from the other modality for fine-tuning or inference. Empirically, MAViL sets a new state-of-the-art on AudioSet (53.1 mAP) and VGGSound (67.1% accuracy). For the first time, a self-supervised audio-visual model outperforms ones that use external supervision on these benchmarks. Code will be available soon.

本文研究了基于图像的蒙版自动编码器（MAE）的简单扩展，以从音频谱图中学习自我监督的表示。在MAE中的变压器编码器编码器设计之后，我们的Audio-MAE首先编码具有较高遮罩比的音频谱图斑块，仅通过编码器层馈入非掩盖令牌。然后，解码器重新订购并解码编码的上下文，并用掩码令牌填充，以重建输入频谱图。我们发现将局部窗户注意力纳入解码器是有益的，因为音频谱图在当地时间和频带中高度相关。然后，我们在目标数据集上以较低的掩模比微调编码器。从经验上讲，音频MAE在六个音频和语音分类任务上设定了新的最先进的性能，超过了使用外部监督预训练的其他最新模型。代码和模型将在https://github.com/facebookresearch/audiomae上。

The massive growth of self-supervised learning (SSL) has been witnessed in language, vision, speech, and audio domains over the past few years. While discrete label prediction is widely adopted for other modalities, the state-of-the-art audio SSL models still employ reconstruction loss for pre-training. Compared with reconstruction loss, semantic-rich discrete label prediction encourages the SSL model to abstract the high-level audio semantics and discard the redundant details as in human perception. However, a semantic-rich acoustic tokenizer for general audio pre-training is usually not straightforward to obtain, due to the continuous property of audio and unavailable phoneme sequences like speech. To tackle this challenge, we propose BEATs, an iterative audio pre-training framework to learn Bidirectional Encoder representation from Audio Transformers, where an acoustic tokenizer and an audio SSL model are optimized by iterations. In the first iteration, we use random projection as the acoustic tokenizer to train an audio SSL model in a mask and label prediction manner. Then, we train an acoustic tokenizer for the next iteration by distilling the semantic knowledge from the pre-trained or fine-tuned audio SSL model. The iteration is repeated with the hope of mutual promotion of the acoustic tokenizer and audio SSL model. The experimental results demonstrate our acoustic tokenizers can generate discrete labels with rich audio semantics and our audio SSL models achieve state-of-the-art results across various audio classification benchmarks, even outperforming previous models that use more training data and model parameters significantly. Specifically, we set a new state-of-the-art mAP 50.6% on AudioSet-2M for audio-only models without using any external data, and 98.1% accuracy on ESC-50. The code and pre-trained models are available at https://aka.ms/beats.

We present XKD, a novel self-supervised framework to learn meaningful representations from unlabelled video clips. XKD is trained with two pseudo tasks. First, masked data reconstruction is performed to learn modality-specific representations. Next, self-supervised cross-modal knowledge distillation is performed between the two modalities through teacher-student setups to learn complementary information. To identify the most effective information to transfer and also to tackle the domain gap between audio and visual modalities which could hinder knowledge transfer, we introduce a domain alignment strategy for effective cross-modal distillation. Lastly, to develop a general-purpose solution capable of handling both audio and visual streams, a modality-agnostic variant of our proposed framework is introduced, which uses the same backbone for both audio and visual modalities. Our proposed cross-modal knowledge distillation improves linear evaluation top-1 accuracy of video action classification by 8.4% on UCF101, 8.1% on HMDB51, 13.8% on Kinetics-Sound, and 14.2% on Kinetics400. Additionally, our modality-agnostic variant shows promising results in developing a general-purpose network capable of handling different data streams. The code is released on the project website.

Can we leverage the audiovisual information already present in video to improve self-supervised representation learning? To answer this question, we study various pretraining architectures and objectives within the masked autoencoding framework, motivated by the success of similar methods in natural language and image understanding. We show that we can achieve significant improvements on audiovisual downstream classification tasks, surpassing the state-of-the-art on VGGSound and AudioSet. Furthermore, we can leverage our audiovisual pretraining scheme for multiple unimodal downstream tasks using a single audiovisual pretrained model. We additionally demonstrate the transferability of our representations, achieving state-of-the-art audiovisual results on Epic Kitchens without pretraining specifically for this dataset.

Benefiting from masked visual modeling, self-supervised video representation learning has achieved remarkable progress. However, existing methods focus on learning representations from scratch through reconstructing low-level features like raw pixel RGB values. In this paper, we propose masked video distillation (MVD), a simple yet effective two-stage masked feature modeling framework for video representation learning: firstly we pretrain an image (or video) model by recovering low-level features of masked patches, then we use the resulting features as targets for masked feature modeling. For the choice of teacher models, we observe that students taught by video teachers perform better on temporally-heavy video tasks, while image teachers transfer stronger spatial representations for spatially-heavy video tasks. Visualization analysis also indicates different teachers produce different learned patterns for students. Motivated by this observation, to leverage the advantage of different teachers, we design a spatial-temporal co-teaching method for MVD. Specifically, we distill student models from both video teachers and image teachers by masked feature modeling. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that video transformers pretrained with spatial-temporal co-teaching outperform models distilled with a single teacher on a multitude of video datasets. Our MVD with vanilla ViT achieves state-of-the-art performance compared with previous supervised or self-supervised methods on several challenging video downstream tasks. For example, with the ViT-Large model, our MVD achieves 86.4% and 75.9% Top-1 accuracy on Kinetics-400 and Something-Something-v2, outperforming VideoMAE by 1.2% and 1.6% respectively. Code will be available at \url{https://github.com/ruiwang2021/mvd}.

We present RAVEn, a self-supervised multi-modal approach to jointly learn visual and auditory speech representations. Our pre-training objective involves encoding masked inputs, and then predicting contextualised targets generated by slowly-evolving momentum encoders. Driven by the inherent differences between video and audio, our design is asymmetric w.r.t. the two modalities' pretext tasks: Whereas the auditory stream predicts both the visual and auditory targets, the visual one predicts only the auditory targets. We observe strong results in low- and high-resource labelled data settings when fine-tuning the visual and auditory encoders resulting from a single pre-training stage, in which the encoders are jointly trained. Notably, RAVEn surpasses all self-supervised methods on visual speech recognition (VSR) on LRS3, and combining RAVEn with self-training using only 30 hours of labelled data even outperforms a recent semi-supervised method trained on 90,000 hours of non-public data. At the same time, we achieve state-of-the-art results in the LRS3 low-resource setting for auditory speech recognition (as well as for VSR). Our findings point to the viability of learning powerful speech representations entirely from raw video and audio, i.e., without relying on handcrafted features. Code and models will be made public.

The remarkable success of deep learning in various domains relies on the availability of large-scale annotated datasets. However, obtaining annotations is expensive and requires great effort, which is especially challenging for videos. Moreover, the use of human-generated annotations leads to models with biased learning and poor domain generalization and robustness. As an alternative, self-supervised learning provides a way for representation learning which does not require annotations and has shown promise in both image and video domains. Different from the image domain, learning video representations are more challenging due to the temporal dimension, bringing in motion and other environmental dynamics. This also provides opportunities for video-exclusive ideas that advance self-supervised learning in the video and multimodal domain. In this survey, we provide a review of existing approaches on self-supervised learning focusing on the video domain. We summarize these methods into four different categories based on their learning objectives: 1) pretext tasks, 2) generative learning, 3) contrastive learning, and 4) cross-modal agreement. We further introduce the commonly used datasets, downstream evaluation tasks, insights into the limitations of existing works, and the potential future directions in this area.

从未标记数据的代表学习一直是对人工智能研究的重大兴趣。虽然自我监督的言语代表学习在语音研究界受欢迎，但很少有效地对非语音音频任务进行了全面分析了音频表示学习。在本文中，我们提出了一种自我监督的音频表示学习方法，并将其应用于各种下游非语音音频任务。我们将众所周知的Wav2Vec 2.0框架结合起来，这在用于语音任务的自我监督学习中取得了成功，具有参数效率的构装体系结构。我们的自我监督的预培训可以减少三分之二的标记数据的需求。在Audioset基准测试中，我们达到平均平均精度（地图）得分为0.415，这是通过仅限音频自我监督的学习在此数据集上的新型最先进的。我们的微调符合子也超越了在几个下游任务上以监督方式预先培训的先前系统的性能。我们进一步讨论了预先培训和微调的重要设计考虑因素。

Humans perceive the world by concurrently processing and fusing high-dimensional inputs from multiple modalities such as vision and audio. Machine perception models, in stark contrast, are typically modality-specific and optimised for unimodal benchmarks, and hence late-stage fusion of final representations or predictions from each modality (`late-fusion') is still a dominant paradigm for multimodal video classification. Instead, we introduce a novel transformer based architecture that uses `fusion bottlenecks' for modality fusion at multiple layers. Compared to traditional pairwise self-attention, our model forces information between different modalities to pass through a small number of bottleneck latents, requiring the model to collate and condense the most relevant information in each modality and only share what is necessary. We find that such a strategy improves fusion performance, at the same time reducing computational cost. We conduct thorough ablation studies, and achieve state-of-the-art results on multiple audio-visual classification benchmarks including Audioset, Epic-Kitchens and VGGSound. All code and models will be released.

蒙面的自动编码器是可扩展的视觉学习者，因为Mae \ Cite {He2022masked}的标题表明，视觉中的自我监督学习（SSL）可能会采用与NLP中类似的轨迹。具体而言，具有蒙版预测（例如BERT）的生成借口任务已成为NLP中的事实上的标准SSL实践。相比之下，他们的歧视性对应物（例如对比度学习）掩埋了视力中的生成方法的早期尝试；但是，蒙版图像建模的成功已恢复了屏蔽自动编码器（过去通常被称为DeNosing AutoCoder）。作为在NLP中与Bert弥合差距的一个里程碑，蒙面自动编码器吸引了对SSL在视觉及其他方面的前所未有的关注。这项工作对蒙面自动编码器进行了全面的调查，以洞悉SSL的有希望的方向。作为第一个使用蒙版自动编码器审查SSL的人，这项工作通过讨论其历史发展，最新进度以及对不同应用的影响，重点介绍其在视觉中的应用。

通常需要在大型数据集上进行预训练的视频变压器，以在相对较小的数据集上实现首要性能。在本文中，我们表明视频蒙面的自动编码器（Videomae）是用于自我监督视频预训练（SSVP）的数据效率学习者。我们的启发受到了最近的ImageMae的启发，并提出了具有极高比例的定制视频管掩蔽。这种简单的设计使视频重建成为更具挑战性的自我判断任务，从而鼓励在此预训练过程中提取更有效的视频表示。我们在SSVP上获得了三个重要发现：（1）屏蔽比的比例极高（即90％至95％）仍然可以产生良好的视频性能。在时间上冗余的视频内容比图像更高的掩蔽率。 （2）视频在很小的数据集（即3K-4K视频）上取得了令人印象深刻的结果，而无需使用任何额外的数据。 （3）视频表明，数据质量比SSVP的数据数量更重要。在培训和目标数据集之间的域转移是一个重要问题。值得注意的是，我们与香草VIT的视频在动力学400上可以达到85.8％，在不使用任何额外数据的情况下，在HMDB51上的V2上有75.3％，UCF101的某些东西为75.3％，在UCF101上获得90.8％，HMDB51上的90.8％和61.1％。代码可从https://github.com/mcg-nju/videomae获得。

我们使用无卷积的变压器架构提出了一种从未标记数据学习多式式表示的框架。具体而言，我们的视频音频文本变压器（Vatt）将原始信号作为输入提取，提取丰富的多式化表示，以使各种下游任务受益。我们使用多模式对比损失从头划线训练Vatt端到端，并通过视频动作识别，音频事件分类，图像分类和文本到视频检索的下游任务评估其性能。此外，我们通过共享三种方式之间的重量来研究模型 - 无话的单骨架变压器。我们表明，无卷积VATT优于下游任务中的最先进的Convnet架构。特别是，Vatt的视觉变压器在动力学-400上实现82.1％的高精度82.1％，在动力学-600，72.7％的动力学-700上的72.7％，以及时间的时间，新的记录，在避免受监督的预训练时，新的记录。通过从头划伤训练相同的变压器，转移到图像分类导致图像分类导致78.7％的ImageNet精度为64.7％，尽管视频和图像之间的域间差距，我们的模型概括了我们的模型。 Vatt的音雅音频变压器还通过在没有任何监督的预训练的情况下在Audioset上实现39.4％的地图来设置基于波形的音频事件识别的新记录。 Vatt的源代码是公开的。

Current self-supervised learning algorithms are often modality-specific and require large amounts of computational resources. To address these issues, we increase the training efficiency of data2vec, a learning objective that generalizes across several modalities. We do not encode masked tokens, use a fast convolutional decoder and amortize the effort to build teacher representations. data2vec 2.0 benefits from the rich contextualized target representations introduced in data2vec which enable a fast self-supervised learner. Experiments on ImageNet-1K image classification show that data2vec 2.0 matches the accuracy of Masked Autoencoders in 16.4x lower pre-training time, on Librispeech speech recognition it performs as well as wav2vec 2.0 in 10.6x less time, and on GLUE natural language understanding it matches a retrained RoBERTa model in half the time. Trading some speed for accuracy results in ImageNet-1K top-1 accuracy of 86.8\% with a ViT-L model trained for 150 epochs.

自我监督学习（SSL）通过利用不需要标签的借口任务来学习有用的归纳偏见。 SSL的未标记性质使得对整个幻灯片组织病理学图像（WSIS）尤为重要，在该图片级的人类注释很难。蒙面自动编码器（MAE）是一种适合数字病理学的SSL方法，因为它不需要阴性采样，并且几乎不需要数据增加。但是，自然图像和数字病理图像之间的域移动需要进一步研究贴片级WSIS的MA​​E。在本文中，我们研究了组织病理学中MAE的几种设计选择。此外，我们引入了一个多模式MAE（MMAE），该MAE（MMAE）利用了苏木精和曙红（H＆E）染色的WSI的特定组成性。我们在公共补丁级数据集NCT-CRC-HE-100K上进行了实验。结果表明，MMAE架构的表现优于监督基线和其他最先进的SSL技术，用于八类组织表型任务，仅利用100个标记的样品进行微调。我们的代码可从https://github.com/wisdomikezogwo/mmae_pathology获得

We propose Spatio-temporal Crop Aggregation for video representation LEarning (SCALE), a novel method that enjoys high scalability at both training and inference time. Our model builds long-range video features by learning from sets of video clip-level features extracted with a pre-trained backbone. To train the model, we propose a self-supervised objective consisting of masked clip feature prediction. We apply sparsity to both the input, by extracting a random set of video clips, and to the loss function, by only reconstructing the sparse inputs. Moreover, we use dimensionality reduction by working in the latent space of a pre-trained backbone applied to single video clips. The video representation is then obtained by taking the ensemble of the concatenation of embeddings of separate video clips with a video clip set summarization token. These techniques make our method not only extremely efficient to train, but also highly effective in transfer learning. We demonstrate that our video representation yields state-of-the-art performance with linear, non-linear, and $k$-NN probing on common action classification datasets.

语音的视频录制包含相关的音频和视觉信息，为语音表示从扬声器的唇部运动和产生的声音提供了强大的信号。我们介绍了视听隐藏单元BERT（AV-HUBERT），是视听语音的自我监督的代表学习框架，这些屏幕屏蔽了多流视频输入并预测自动发现和迭代地精制多模式隐藏单元。 AV-HUBERT学习强大的视听语音表示，这些语音表示受益于唇读和自动语音识别。在最大的公众唇读基准LRS3（433小时）中，AV-Hubert达到32.5％WER，只有30个小时的标签数据，优于前一种最先进的方法（33.6％）培训，达到了一千次转录的视频数据（31k小时）。当使用来自LRS3的所有433小时的标记数据并结合自培训时，唇读WER进一步降低至26.9％。使用我们在相同的基准测试中使用您的视听表示，用于音频语音识别的相对效率为40％，而最先进的性能（1.3％Vs 2.3％）。我们的代码和模型可在https://github.com/facebookResearch/av_hubert获得

可以代表和描述环境声音的机器具有实际潜力，例如，用于音频标记和标题系统。普遍的学习范式已经依赖于并行音频文本数据，但是，Web上几乎没有可用。我们提出了vip-ant，它在不使用任何并行音频文本数据的情况下诱导\ textbf {a} udio- \ textBF {t} EXT对齐。我们的主要思想是在双模形图像文本表示和双模态图像 - 音频表示之间共享图像模型;图像模态用作枢轴，并将音频和文本连接在三模态嵌入空间中。在没有配对的音频文本数据的困难零拍设置中，我们的模型在ESC50和US8K音频分类任务上展示了最先进的零点性能，甚至超过了披肩标题的领域的监督状态检索（带音频查询）2.2 \％R @ 1。我们进一步调查了最小音频监控的情况，发现，例如，只有几百个监督的音频文本对将零拍音频分类精度提高8 \％US8K。然而，为了匹配人类奇偶校验，我们的经验缩放实验表明我们需要大约2米$ 2 ^ {21} \约2M $监督的音频标题对。我们的工作开辟了新的途径，用于学习音频文本连接，几乎没有并行音频文本数据。

最近的蒙版图像建模（MIM）在自我监督学习（SSL）中受到了很多关注，该学习要求目标模型恢复输入图像的掩盖部分。尽管基于MIM的预训练方法在转移到许多下游任务时达到了新的最新性能，但可视化表明，与基于基于对比性学习预训练相比，学习的表示形式不可分割，尤其是相比。这激发了我们思考MIM预培训表示的线性可分离性是否可以进一步改善，从而改善了训练的性能。由于MIM和对比度学习倾向于利用不同的数据增强和培训策略，因此将这两个借口任务结合起来并不是微不足道的。在这项工作中，我们提出了一个新颖而灵活的预训练框架，名为Mimco，该框架通过两阶段的预培训结合了MIM和对比度学习。具体而言，MIMCO将预先训练的对比学习模型作为教师模型，并通过两种类型的学习目标进行了预培训：贴片级和图像级的重建损失。关于下游任务的广泛转移实验证明了我们的MIMCO预训练框架的出色表现。以VIT-S为例，当使用预先训练的MoCov3-Vit-S作为教师模型时，Mimco只需要100个时期的预训练时期即可达到Imagenet-1K上的82.53％Top-1 FineTuning精度，这表现优于表现最先进的自我监督学习对手。

The success of deep learning heavily relies on large-scale data with comprehensive labels, which is more expensive and time-consuming to fetch in 3D compared to 2D images or natural languages. This promotes the potential of utilizing models pretrained with data more than 3D as teachers for cross-modal knowledge transferring. In this paper, we revisit masked modeling in a unified fashion of knowledge distillation, and we show that foundational Transformers pretrained with 2D images or natural languages can help self-supervised 3D representation learning through training Autoencoders as Cross-Modal Teachers (ACT). The pretrained Transformers are transferred as cross-modal 3D teachers using discrete variational autoencoding self-supervision, during which the Transformers are frozen with prompt tuning for better knowledge inheritance. The latent features encoded by the 3D teachers are used as the target of masked point modeling, wherein the dark knowledge is distilled to the 3D Transformer students as foundational geometry understanding. Our ACT pretrained 3D learner achieves state-of-the-art generalization capacity across various downstream benchmarks, e.g., 88.21% overall accuracy on ScanObjectNN. Codes will be released at https://github.com/RunpeiDong/ACT.