最近对反向传播的近似（BP）减轻了BP的许多计算效率低下和与生物学的不兼容性，但仍然存在重要的局限性。此外，近似值显着降低了基准的准确性，这表明完全不同的方法可能更富有成果。在这里，基于在软冠军全网络中Hebbian学习的最新理论基础上，我们介绍了多层softhebb，即一种训练深神经网络的算法，没有任何反馈，目标或错误信号。结果，它通过避免重量传输，非本地可塑性，层更新的时间锁定，迭代平衡以及（自我）监督或其他反馈信号来实现效率，这在其他方法中是必不可少的。与最先进的生物学知识学习相比，它提高的效率和生物兼容性不能取得准确性的折衷，而是改善了准确性。 MNIST，CIFAR-10，STL-10和IMAGENET上最多五个隐藏层和添加的线性分类器，分别达到99.4％，80.3％，76.2％和27.3％。总之，SOFTHEBB显示出与BP的截然不同的方法，即对几层的深度学习在大脑中可能是合理的，并提高了生物学上的机器学习的准确性。

HEBBIAN在获奖者全方位（WTA）网络中的可塑性对于神经形态的片上学习非常有吸引力，这是由于其高效，本地，无监督和在线性质。此外，它的生物学合理性可能有助于克服人工算法的重要局限性，例如它们对对抗攻击和长期训练时间的敏感性。但是，Hebbian WTA学习在机器学习（ML）中很少使用，这可能是因为它缺少与深度学习兼容的优化理论（DL）。在这里，我们严格地表明，由标准DL元素构建的WTA网络与我们得出的Hebbian样可塑性结合在一起，维持数据的贝叶斯生成模型。重要的是，在没有任何监督的情况下，我们的算法，SOFTHEBB，可以最大程度地减少跨渗透性，即监督DL中的共同损失函数。我们在理论上和实践中展示了这一点。关键是“软” WTA，那里没有绝对的“硬”赢家神经元。令人惊讶的是，在浅网络比较与背面的比较（BP）中，SOFTHEBB表现出超出其HEBBIAN效率的优势。也就是说，它的收敛速度更快，并且对噪声和对抗性攻击更加强大。值得注意的是，最大程度地混淆SoftheBB的攻击也使人眼睛混淆，可能将人类感知的鲁棒性与Hebbian WTA Cortects联系在一起。最后，SOFTHEBB可以将合成对象作为真实对象类的插值生成。总而言之，Hebbian效率，理论的基础，跨透明拷贝最小化以及令人惊讶的经验优势，表明SOFTHEBB可能会激发高度神经态和彻底不同，但实用且有利的学习算法和硬件加速器。

人工神经网络中的监督学习通常依赖于反向传播，其中权重根据误差函数梯度进行更新，并从输出层到输入层依次传播。尽管这种方法已被证明在广泛的应用领域有效，但在许多方面缺乏生物学上的合理性，包括重量对称问题，学习对非本地信号的依赖性，错误传播期间的神经活动的冻结以及更新锁定的冻结问题。已经引入了替代培训计划，包括标志对称性，反馈对准和直接反馈对准，但它们总是依靠向后传球，这阻碍了同时解决所有问题的可能性。在这里，我们建议用第二个正向通行证替换向后通行证，其中根据网络的误差调制输入信号。我们表明，这项新颖的学习规则全面解决了上述所有问题，并且可以应用于完全连接和卷积模型。我们测试了有关MNIST，CIFAR-10和CIFAR-100的学习规则。这些结果有助于将生物学原理纳入机器学习。

最近的作品研究了在神经切线内核（NTK）制度中训练的广泛神经网络的理论和经验特性。鉴于生物神经网络比其人工对应物宽得多，因此我们认为NTK范围广泛的神经网络是生物神经网络的可能模型。利用NTK理论，我们从理论上说明梯度下降驱动层的重量更新与其输入活动相关性一致，并通过误差加权，并从经验上证明了结果在有限宽度的宽网络中也存在。对齐结果使我们能够制定一个生物动机的，无反向传播的学习规则，理论上等同于无限宽度网络中的反向传播。我们测试了馈电和经常性神经网络中基准问题的这些学习规则，并在宽网络中证明了与反向传播相当的性能。所提出的规则在低数据制度中特别有效，这在生物学习环境中很常见。

由于它们的时间加工能力及其低交换（尺寸，重量和功率）以及神经形态硬件中的节能实现，尖峰神经网络（SNNS）已成为传统人工神经网络（ANN）的有趣替代方案。然而，培训SNNS所涉及的挑战在准确性方面有限制了它们的表现，从而限制了他们的应用。因此，改善更准确的特征提取的学习算法和神经架构是SNN研究中的当前优先级之一。在本文中，我们展示了现代尖峰架构的关键组成部分的研究。我们在从最佳执行网络中凭经验比较了图像分类数据集中的不同技术。我们设计了成功的残余网络（Reset）架构的尖峰版本，并测试了不同的组件和培训策略。我们的结果提供了SNN设计的最新版本，它允许在尝试构建最佳视觉特征提取器时进行明智的选择。最后，我们的网络优于CIFAR-10（94.1％）和CIFAR-100（74.5％）数据集的先前SNN架构，并将现有技术与DVS-CIFAR10（71.3％）相匹配，参数较少而不是先前的状态艺术，无需安静转换。代码在https://github.com/vicenteax/spiking_resnet上获得。

最近的研究表明，卷积神经网络（CNNS）不是图像分类的唯一可行的解决方案。此外，CNN中使用的重量共享和反向验证不对应于预测灵长类动物视觉系统中存在的机制。为了提出更加生物合理的解决方案，我们设计了使用峰值定时依赖性塑性（STDP）和其奖励调制变体（R-STDP）学习规则训练的本地连接的尖峰神经网络（SNN）。使用尖刺神经元和局部连接以及强化学习（RL）将我们带到了所提出的架构中的命名法生物网络。我们的网络由速率编码的输入层组成，后跟局部连接的隐藏层和解码输出层。采用尖峰群体的投票方案进行解码。我们使用Mnist DataSet获取图像分类准确性，并评估我们有益于于不同目标响应的奖励系统的稳健性。

Spiking neural networks (SNN) are a viable alternative to conventional artificial neural networks when energy efficiency and computational complexity are of importance. A major advantage of SNNs is their binary information transfer through spike trains. The training of SNN has, however, been a challenge, since neuron models are non-differentiable and traditional gradient-based backpropagation algorithms cannot be applied directly. Furthermore, spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP), albeit being a spike-based learning rule, updates weights locally and does not optimize for the output error of the network. We present desire backpropagation, a method to derive the desired spike activity of neurons from the output error. The loss function can then be evaluated locally for every neuron. Incorporating the desire values into the STDP weight update leads to global error minimization and increasing classification accuracy. At the same time, the neuron dynamics and computational efficiency of STDP are maintained, making it a spike-based supervised learning rule. We trained three-layer networks to classify MNIST and Fashion-MNIST images and reached an accuracy of 98.41% and 87.56%, respectively. Furthermore, we show that desire backpropagation is computationally less complex than backpropagation in traditional neural networks.

驱动深度学习成功的反向传播很可能与大脑的学习机制不同。在本文中，我们制定了一项受生物学启发的学习规则，该规则在HEBB著名的建议的想法之后，发现了当地竞争的特征。已经证明，该本地学习规则所学的无监督功能可以作为培训模型，以提高某些监督学习任务的绩效。更重要的是，该本地学习规则使我们能够构建一个与返回传播完全不同的新学习范式，该范式命名为激活学习，其中神经网络的输出激活大致衡量了输入模式的可能性。激活学习能够从几乎没有输入模式的几镜头中学习丰富的本地特征，并且当训练样本的数量相对较小时，比反向传播算法表现出明显更好的性能。这种学习范式统一了无监督的学习，监督的学习和生成模型，并且更安全地抵抗对抗性攻击，为建立一般任务神经网络的某些可能性铺平了道路。

短期可塑性（STP）是一种将腐烂记忆存储在大脑皮质突触中的机制。在计算实践中，已经使用了STP，但主要是在尖峰神经元的细分市场中，尽管理论预测它是对某些动态任务的最佳解决方案。在这里，我们提出了一种新型的经常性神经单元，即STP神经元（STPN），它确实实现了惊人的功能。它的关键机制是，突触具有一个状态，通过与偶然性的自我连接在时间上传播。该公式使能够通过时间返回传播来训练可塑性，从而导致一种学习在短期内学习和忘记的形式。 STPN的表现优于所有测试的替代方案，即RNN，LSTMS，其他具有快速重量和可区分可塑性的型号。我们在监督和强化学习（RL）以及协会​​检索，迷宫探索，Atari视频游戏和Mujoco Robotics等任务中证实了这一点。此外，我们计算出，在神经形态或生物电路中，STPN最大程度地减少了模型的能量消耗，因为它会动态降低个体突触。基于这些，生物学STP可能是一种强大的进化吸引子，可最大程度地提高效率和计算能力。现在，STPN将这些神经形态的优势带入了广泛的机器学习实践。代码可从https://github.com/neuromorphiccomputing/stpn获得

深度学习网络通常使用非生物学学习方法。相比之下，基于更生物学卓越的学习的网络，如休斯学习，表现出相对较差的性能和实施困难。在这里，我们表明Hebbian在分层中的学习，卷积神经网络可以通过使用现代深度学习框架来实现，通过使用梯度产生所需的Hebbian更新的特定损失，几乎具有现代深度学习框架。我们提供表达式，其渐变精确地实现了普通的Hebbian规则（DW〜= XY），Grossberg的Instar规则（DW〜= Y（X-W））和OJA的规则（DW〜= Y（X-YW））。作为一个应用程序，我们构建了Hebbian卷积多层网络以进行对象识别。我们观察到较高层的这种网络倾向于学习大，简单的特征（类似Gabor样滤波器和斑点），解释先前报告的连续层的解码性能的降低。为了打击这种趋势，我们引入干预措施（具有稀疏可塑性的密集激活，层之间的连接灌注），这导致稀疏学习特征，大量提高性能，并允许信息增加连续层。我们假设具有现代深度学习框架提供的大量计算提升的更先进的技术（动态刺激，追踪，反馈连接等）可以大大提高多层Hebbian网络的性能和生物学相关性。

The error Backpropagation algorithm (BP) is a key method for training deep neural networks. While performant, it is also resource-demanding in terms of computation, memory usage and energy. This makes it unsuitable for online learning on edge devices that require a high processing rate and low energy consumption. More importantly, BP does not take advantage of the parallelism and local characteristics offered by dedicated neural processors. There is therefore a demand for alternative algorithms to BP that could improve the latency, memory requirements, and energy footprint of neural networks on hardware. In this work, we propose a novel method based on Direct Feedback Alignment (DFA) which uses Forward-Mode Automatic Differentiation to estimate backpropagation paths and learn feedback connections in an online manner. We experimentally show that Directional DFA achieves performances that are closer to BP than other feedback methods on several benchmark datasets and architectures while benefiting from the locality and parallelization characteristics of DFA. Moreover, we show that, unlike other feedback learning algorithms, our method provides stable learning for convolution layers.

Models of sensory processing and learning in the cortex need to efficiently assign credit to synapses in all areas. In deep learning, a known solution is error backpropagation, which however requires biologically implausible weight transport from feed-forward to feedback paths. We introduce Phaseless Alignment Learning (PAL), a bio-plausible method to learn efficient feedback weights in layered cortical hierarchies. This is achieved by exploiting the noise naturally found in biophysical systems as an additional carrier of information. In our dynamical system, all weights are learned simultaneously with always-on plasticity and using only information locally available to the synapses. Our method is completely phase-free (no forward and backward passes or phased learning) and allows for efficient error propagation across multi-layer cortical hierarchies, while maintaining biologically plausible signal transport and learning. Our method is applicable to a wide class of models and improves on previously known biologically plausible ways of credit assignment: compared to random synaptic feedback, it can solve complex tasks with less neurons and learn more useful latent representations. We demonstrate this on various classification tasks using a cortical microcircuit model with prospective coding.

Most modern convolutional neural networks (CNNs) used for object recognition are built using the same principles: Alternating convolution and max-pooling layers followed by a small number of fully connected layers. We re-evaluate the state of the art for object recognition from small images with convolutional networks, questioning the necessity of different components in the pipeline. We find that max-pooling can simply be replaced by a convolutional layer with increased stride without loss in accuracy on several image recognition benchmarks. Following this finding -and building on other recent work for finding simple network structures -we propose a new architecture that consists solely of convolutional layers and yields competitive or state of the art performance on several object recognition datasets (CIFAR-10, CIFAR-100, ImageNet). To analyze the network we introduce a new variant of the "deconvolution approach" for visualizing features learned by CNNs, which can be applied to a broader range of network structures than existing approaches.

While machine learning is traditionally a resource intensive task, embedded systems, autonomous navigation, and the vision of the Internet of Things fuel the interest in resource-efficient approaches. These approaches aim for a carefully chosen trade-off between performance and resource consumption in terms of computation and energy. The development of such approaches is among the major challenges in current machine learning research and key to ensure a smooth transition of machine learning technology from a scientific environment with virtually unlimited computing resources into everyday's applications. In this article, we provide an overview of the current state of the art of machine learning techniques facilitating these real-world requirements. In particular, we focus on deep neural networks (DNNs), the predominant machine learning models of the past decade. We give a comprehensive overview of the vast literature that can be mainly split into three non-mutually exclusive categories: (i) quantized neural networks, (ii) network pruning, and (iii) structural efficiency. These techniques can be applied during training or as post-processing, and they are widely used to reduce the computational demands in terms of memory footprint, inference speed, and energy efficiency. We also briefly discuss different concepts of embedded hardware for DNNs and their compatibility with machine learning techniques as well as potential for energy and latency reduction. We substantiate our discussion with experiments on well-known benchmark datasets using compression techniques (quantization, pruning) for a set of resource-constrained embedded systems, such as CPUs, GPUs and FPGAs. The obtained results highlight the difficulty of finding good trade-offs between resource efficiency and predictive performance.

We introduce a method to train Quantized Neural Networks (QNNs) -neural networks with extremely low precision (e.g., 1-bit) weights and activations, at run-time. At traintime the quantized weights and activations are used for computing the parameter gradients. During the forward pass, QNNs drastically reduce memory size and accesses, and replace most arithmetic operations with bit-wise operations. As a result, power consumption is expected to be drastically reduced. We trained QNNs over the MNIST, CIFAR-10, SVHN and ImageNet datasets. The resulting QNNs achieve prediction accuracy comparable to their 32-bit counterparts. For example, our quantized version of AlexNet with 1-bit weights and 2-bit activations achieves 51% top-1 accuracy. Moreover, we quantize the parameter gradients to 6-bits as well which enables gradients computation using only bit-wise operation. Quantized recurrent neural networks were tested over the Penn Treebank dataset, and achieved comparable accuracy as their 32-bit counterparts using only 4-bits. Last but not least, we programmed a binary matrix multiplication GPU kernel with which it is possible to run our MNIST QNN 7 times faster than with an unoptimized GPU kernel, without suffering any loss in classification accuracy. The QNN code is available online.

错误 - 背面范围（BackProp）算法仍然是人工神经网络中信用分配问题的最常见解决方案。在神经科学中，尚不清楚大脑是否可以采用类似的策略来纠正其突触。最近的模型试图弥合这一差距，同时与一系列实验观察一致。但是，这些模型要么无法有效地跨多层返回误差信号，要么需要多相学习过程，它们都不让人想起大脑中的学习。在这里，我们介绍了一种新模型，破裂的皮质皮质网络（BUSTCCN），该网络通过整合了皮质网络的已知特性，即爆发活动，短期可塑性（STP）和dendrite-target-targeting Interneurons来解决这些问题。 BUSTCCN依赖于连接型特异性STP的突发多路复用来传播深层皮质网络中的反向Prop样误差信号。这些误差信号是在远端树突上编码的，由于兴奋性抑制性抑制性倒入输入而诱导爆发依赖性可塑性。首先，我们证明我们的模型可以使用单相学习过程有效地通过多层回溯错误。接下来，我们通过经验和分析表明，在我们的模型中学习近似反向推广的梯度。最后，我们证明我们的模型能够学习复杂的图像分类任务（MNIST和CIFAR-10）。总体而言，我们的结果表明，跨细胞，细胞，微电路和系统水平的皮质特征共同基于大脑中的单相有效深度学习。

We trained a large, deep convolutional neural network to classify the 1.2 million high-resolution images in the ImageNet LSVRC-2010 contest into the 1000 different classes. On the test data, we achieved top-1 and top-5 error rates of 37.5% and 17.0% which is considerably better than the previous state-of-the-art. The neural network, which has 60 million parameters and 650,000 neurons, consists of five convolutional layers, some of which are followed by max-pooling layers, and three fully-connected layers with a final 1000-way softmax. To make training faster, we used non-saturating neurons and a very efficient GPU implementation of the convolution operation. To reduce overfitting in the fully-connected layers we employed a recently-developed regularization method called "dropout" that proved to be very effective. We also entered a variant of this model in the ILSVRC-2012 competition and achieved a winning top-5 test error rate of 15.3%, compared to 26.2% achieved by the second-best entry.

Time Series Classification (TSC) is an important and challenging problem in data mining. With the increase of time series data availability, hundreds of TSC algorithms have been proposed. Among these methods, only a few have considered Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) to perform this task. This is surprising as deep learning has seen very successful applications in the last years. DNNs have indeed revolutionized the field of computer vision especially with the advent of novel deeper architectures such as Residual and Convolutional Neural Networks. Apart from images, sequential data such as text and audio can also be processed with DNNs to reach state-of-the-art performance for document classification and speech recognition. In this article, we study the current state-ofthe-art performance of deep learning algorithms for TSC by presenting an empirical study of the most recent DNN architectures for TSC. We give an overview of the most successful deep learning applications in various time series domains under a unified taxonomy of DNNs for TSC. We also provide an open source deep learning framework to the TSC community where we implemented each of the compared approaches and evaluated them on a univariate TSC benchmark (the UCR/UEA archive) and 12 multivariate time series datasets. By training 8,730 deep learning models on 97 time series datasets, we propose the most exhaustive study of DNNs for TSC to date.

Deep neural nets with a large number of parameters are very powerful machine learning systems. However, overfitting is a serious problem in such networks. Large networks are also slow to use, making it difficult to deal with overfitting by combining the predictions of many different large neural nets at test time. Dropout is a technique for addressing this problem. The key idea is to randomly drop units (along with their connections) from the neural network during training. This prevents units from co-adapting too much. During training, dropout samples from an exponential number of different "thinned" networks. At test time, it is easy to approximate the effect of averaging the predictions of all these thinned networks by simply using a single unthinned network that has smaller weights. This significantly reduces overfitting and gives major improvements over other regularization methods. We show that dropout improves the performance of neural networks on supervised learning tasks in vision, speech recognition, document classification and computational biology, obtaining state-of-the-art results on many benchmark data sets.

预测性编码提供了对皮质功能的潜在统一说明 - 假设大脑的核心功能是最小化有关世界生成模型的预测错误。该理论与贝叶斯大脑框架密切相关，在过去的二十年中，在理论和认知神经科学领域都产生了重大影响。基于经验测试的预测编码的改进和扩展的理论和数学模型，以及评估其在大脑中实施的潜在生物学合理性以及该理论所做的具体神经生理学和心理学预测。尽管存在这种持久的知名度，但仍未对预测编码理论，尤其是该领域的最新发展进行全面回顾。在这里，我们提供了核心数学结构和预测编码的逻辑的全面综述，从而补充了文献中最新的教程。我们还回顾了该框架中的各种经典和最新工作，从可以实施预测性编码的神经生物学现实的微电路到预测性编码和广泛使用的错误算法的重新传播之间的紧密关系，以及对近距离的调查。预测性编码和现代机器学习技术之间的关系。