Information on urban tree canopies is fundamental to mitigating climate change [1] as well as improving quality of life [2]. Urban tree planting initiatives face a lack of up-to-date data about the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the tree canopy in cities. We present a pipeline that utilizes LiDAR data as ground-truth and then trains a multi-task machine learning model to generate reliable estimates of tree cover and canopy height in urban areas using multi-source multi-spectral satellite imagery for the case study of Chicago.

我们介绍了一种新颖的深度学习方法，用于使用高分辨率的多光谱空中图像在城市环境中检测单个树木。我们使用卷积神经网络来回归一个置信图，指示单个树的位置，该位置是使用峰查找算法本地化的。我们的方法通过检测公共和私人空间中的树木来提供完整的空间覆盖范围，并可以扩展到很大的区域。在我们的研究区域，跨越南加州的五个城市，我们的F评分为0.735，RMSE为2.157 m。我们使用我们的方法在加利福尼亚城市森林中生产所有树木的地图，这表明我们有可能在前所未有的尺度上支持未来的城市林业研究。

世界上最大的可可生产国C \^ote d'Ivoire and Ghana占全球可可生产的三分之二。在这两个国家，可可都是多年生作物，为近200万农民提供收入。然而，缺少可可种植区域的精确地图，阻碍了保护区，生产和产量的准确量化，并限制了可用于改善可持续性治理的信息。在这里，我们将可可种植园数据与公开可用的卫星图像结合在深度学习框架中，并为两国的可可种植园创建高分辨率地图，并被现场验证。我们的结果表明，可可栽培是C \^ote d'Ivoire和Ghane的保护区中森林损失的37％以上和13％的潜在驱动因素，该官员报告大大低估了种植的地区，最高40％在加纳。这些地图是提高可可生产地区保护和经济发展的关键基础。

对联合国可持续发展目标的进展（SDGS）因关键环境和社会经济指标缺乏数据而受到阻碍，其中历史上有稀疏时间和空间覆盖率的地面调查。机器学习的最新进展使得可以利用丰富，频繁更新和全球可用的数据，例如卫星或社交媒体，以向SDGS提供洞察力。尽管有希望的早期结果，但到目前为止使用此类SDG测量数据的方法在很大程度上在不同的数据集或使用不一致的评估指标上进行了评估，使得难以理解的性能是改善，并且额外研究将是最丰富的。此外，处理卫星和地面调查数据需要域知识，其中许多机器学习群落缺乏。在本文中，我们介绍了3个SDG的3个基准任务的集合，包括与经济发展，农业，健康，教育，水和卫生，气候行动和陆地生命相关的任务。 15个任务中的11个数据集首次公开发布。我们为Acceptandbench的目标是（1）降低机器学习界的进入的障碍，以促进衡量和实现SDGS; （2）提供标准基准，用于评估各种SDG的任务的机器学习模型; （3）鼓励开发新颖的机器学习方法，改进的模型性能促进了对SDG的进展。

我们介绍并评估了一种弱监督的方法，以基于远程感知的数据和接近零的人类相互作用来量化城市森林的时空分布。成功训练语义细分的机器学习模型通常取决于高质量标签的可用性。我们评估高分辨率，三维点云数据（LIDAR）作为嘈杂标签的来源的好处，以便训练模型以在正吞原中的定位。作为概念证明，我们感觉到桑迪飓风对纽约市康尼岛（NYC）的城市森林的影响，并将其引用到纽约布鲁克林的影响较小的城市空间。

In intensively managed forests in Europe, where forests are divided into stands of small size and may show heterogeneity within stands, a high spatial resolution (10 - 20 meters) is arguably needed to capture the differences in canopy height. In this work, we developed a deep learning model based on multi-stream remote sensing measurements to create a high-resolution canopy height map over the "Landes de Gascogne" forest in France, a large maritime pine plantation of 13,000 km$^2$ with flat terrain and intensive management. This area is characterized by even-aged and mono-specific stands, of a typical length of a few hundred meters, harvested every 35 to 50 years. Our deep learning U-Net model uses multi-band images from Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 with composite time averages as input to predict tree height derived from GEDI waveforms. The evaluation is performed with external validation data from forest inventory plots and a stereo 3D reconstruction model based on Skysat imagery available at specific locations. We trained seven different U-net models based on a combination of Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 bands to evaluate the importance of each instrument in the dominant height retrieval. The model outputs allow us to generate a 10 m resolution canopy height map of the whole "Landes de Gascogne" forest area for 2020 with a mean absolute error of 2.02 m on the Test dataset. The best predictions were obtained using all available satellite layers from Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 but using only one satellite source also provided good predictions. For all validation datasets in coniferous forests, our model showed better metrics than previous canopy height models available in the same region.

2D和3D建筑图提供了宝贵的信息，以了解人类活动及其对地球及其环境的影响。尽管为提高建筑地图的质量而做出了巨大努力，但自动化方法产生的当前大规模建筑地图仍存在许多错误和不确定性，并且通常仅限于提供2D建筑信息。这项研究提出了一种开源无监督的2D和3D建筑物提取算法，并带有适用于大型建筑物映射的机载LIDAR数据。我们的算法以完全无监督的方式运行，不需要任何培训标签或培训程序。我们的算法由形态过滤和基于平面的过滤组成。因此，计算是有效的，结果易于预测，这可以大大减少所得建筑图中的不确定性。丹佛和纽约市的大规模数据集（> 550 $ km^2 $）的定量和定性评估表明，我们的算法比通过基于深度学习的方法生成的Microsoft Building Footprints可以产生更准确的建筑图。在不同条件下进行的广泛评估证实，我们的算法是可扩展的，可以通过适当的参数选择进一步改进。我们还详细介绍了参数和潜在错误来源的影响，以帮助我们算法的潜在用户。我们的基于激光雷达的算法具有优势，即生成2D和3D构建图在计算上有效，而它产生了准确且可解释的结果。我们提出的算法为带有机载激光雷达数据的全球尺度2D和3D建筑物映射提供了巨大的潜力。

该卷包含来自机器学习挑战的选定贡献“发现玛雅人的奥秘”，该挑战在欧洲机器学习和数据库中知识发现的欧洲挑战赛曲目（ECML PKDD 2021）中提出。遥感大大加速了古代玛雅人森林地区的传统考古景观调查。典型的探索和发现尝试，除了关注整个古老的城市外，还集中在单个建筑物和结构上。最近，已经成功地尝试了使用机器学习来识别古代玛雅人定居点。这些尝试虽然相关，但却集中在狭窄的区域上，并依靠高质量的空中激光扫描（ALS）数据，该数据仅涵盖古代玛雅人曾经定居的地区的一小部分。另一方面，由欧洲航天局（ESA）哨兵任务制作的卫星图像数据很丰富，更重要的是公开。旨在通过执行不同类型的卫星图像（Sentinel-1和Sentinel-2和ALS）的集成图像细分来定位和识别古老的Maya架构（建筑物，Aguadas和平台）的“发现和识别古代玛雅体系结构（建筑物，Aguadas和平台）的挑战的“发现和识别古老的玛雅体系结构（建筑物，阿吉达斯和平台）的“发现玛雅的奥秘”的挑战， （LIDAR）数据。

城市土地覆盖的时间序列数据在分析城市增长模式方面具有很大的效用，不透水表面和植被的分布变化以及对城市微观气候产生影响。虽然Landsat数据非常适于这种分析，但由于长时间系列的免费图像，传统的每像素硬分类未能产生Landsat数据的全部潜力。本文提出了一种子像素分类方法，其利用Landsat-5 TM和Resorational-1 Liss-IV传感器的时间重叠。我们训练卷积神经网络，预测30米Landsat-5 TM数据的分数陆地覆盖。从2011年的Bengaluru的一个艰难的5.8M Liss-IV图像估计参考陆地覆盖分数。此外，我们从2009年使用Mumbai数据并将其与使用的结果进行了概括和卓越的性能随机森林分类器。对于Bengaluru（2011）和Mumbai（2009）数据，我们的CNN模型的平均绝对百分比误差在30M细胞水平上的内置和植被分数预测的7.2至11.3。与最近的最近的研究不同，在使用数据在空间范围进行有限的空间范围进行验证，我们的模型已经过度培训并验证了两个不同时间段的两个Mega城市的完整空间范围的数据。因此，它可以可靠地从Landsat-5 TM时间序列数据中可靠地产生30M内置和植被分数图，以分析长期城市增长模式。

以知情方式监测和管理地球林是解决生物多样性损失和气候变化等挑战的重要要求。虽然森林评估的传统或空中运动提供了在区域一级分析的准确数据，但将其扩展到整个国家，以外的高度分辨率几乎不可能。在这项工作中，我们提出了一种贝叶斯深度学习方法，以10米的分辨率为全国范围的森林结构变量，使用自由可用的卫星图像作为输入。我们的方法将Sentinel-2光学图像和Sentinel-1合成孔径雷达图像共同变换为五种不同的森林结构变量的地图：95th高度百分位，平均高度，密度，基尼系数和分数盖。我们从挪威的41个机载激光扫描任务中培训和测试我们的模型，并证明它能够概括取消测试区域，从而达到11％和15％之间的归一化平均值误差，具体取决于变量。我们的工作也是第一个提出贝叶斯深度学习方法的工作，以预测具有良好校准的不确定性估计的森林结构变量。这些提高了模型的可信度及其适用于需要可靠的信心估计的下游任务，例如知情决策。我们提出了一组广泛的实验，以验证预测地图的准确性以及预测的不确定性的质量。为了展示可扩展性，我们为五个森林结构变量提供挪威地图。

准确地估算主要山区盆地中的积雪对于水资源经理来说至关重要，以便做出影响当地和全球经济，野生动植物和公共政策的决策。目前，此估计需要多个配备LIDAR的飞机飞行或原位测量值，两者均昂贵，稀疏和对可访问区域有偏见。在本文中，我们证明了来自多个，公开可用的卫星和天气数据源的空间和时间信息的融合，可以估算关键山区的积雪。我们的多源模型的表现优于单源估计值5.0英寸RMSE，并且优于稀疏的原位测量值的估计值1.2英寸RMSE。

我们向传感器独立性（Sensei）介绍了一种新型神经网络架构 - 光谱编码器 - 通过该传感器独立性（Sensei） - 通过其中具有不同组合的光谱频带组合的多个多光谱仪器可用于训练广义深度学习模型。我们专注于云屏蔽的问题，使用几个预先存在的数据集，以及Sentinel-2的新的自由可用数据集。我们的模型显示在卫星上实现最先进的性能，它受过训练（Sentinel-2和Landsat 8），并且能够推断到传感器，它在训练期间尚未见过Landsat 7，每\ 'USAT-1，和Sentinel-3 SLST。当多种卫星用于培训，接近或超越专用单传感器型号的性能时，模型性能显示出改善。这项工作是激励遥感社区可以使用巨大各种传感器采取的数据的动机。这不可避免地导致标记用于不同传感器的努力，这限制了深度学习模型的性能，因为他们需要最佳地执行巨大的训练。传感器独立性可以使深度学习模型能够同时使用多个数据集进行培训，提高性能并使它们更广泛适用。这可能导致深入学习方法，用于在板载应用程序和地面分段数据处理中更频繁地使用，这通常需要模型在推出时或之后即将开始。

卫星遥感提供了一种具有成本效益的概要洪水监测的解决方案，卫星衍生的洪水图为传统上使用的数值洪水淹没模型提供了一种计算有效的替代方法。尽管卫星碰巧涵盖正在进行的洪水事件时确实提供了及时的淹没信息，但它们受其时空分辨率的限制，因为它们在各种规模上动态监测洪水演变的能力。不断改善对新卫星数据源的访问以及大数据处理功能，就此问题的数据驱动解决方案而言，已经解锁了前所未有的可能性。具体而言，来自卫星的数据融合，例如哥白尼前哨，它们具有很高的空间和低时间分辨率，以及来自NASA SMAP和GPM任务的数据，它们的空间较低，但时间较高的时间分辨率可能会导致高分辨率的洪水淹没在A处的高分辨率洪水。每日规模。在这里，使用Sentinel-1合成孔径雷达和各种水文，地形和基于土地利用的预测因子衍生出的洪水淹没图对卷积神经网络进行了训练，以预测高分辨率的洪水泛滥概率图。使用Sentinel-1和Sentinel-2衍生的洪水面罩，评估了UNET和SEGNET模型架构的性能，分别具有95％的信心间隔。精确召回曲线（PR-AUC）曲线下的区域（AUC）被用作主要评估指标，这是由于二进制洪水映射问题中类固有的不平衡性质，最佳模型提供了PR-AUC 0.85。

城市环境的可持续性是一个日益相关的问题。空气污染在环境的退化中发挥着关键作用，以及暴露于它的公民的健康。在本章中，我们提供了对模型空气污染的方法的审查，重点是机器学习方法的应用。事实上，已经证明了机器学习方法，以提高传统空气污染方法的准确性，同时限制了模型的开发成本。机器学习工具开辟了研究空气污染的新方法，例如流动动力学建模或遥感方法。

Remote sensing of the Earth's surface water is critical in a wide range of environmental studies, from evaluating the societal impacts of seasonal droughts and floods to the large-scale implications of climate change. Consequently, a large literature exists on the classification of water from satellite imagery. Yet, previous methods have been limited by 1) the spatial resolution of public satellite imagery, 2) classification schemes that operate at the pixel level, and 3) the need for multiple spectral bands. We advance the state-of-the-art by 1) using commercial imagery with panchromatic and multispectral resolutions of 30 cm and 1.2 m, respectively, 2) developing multiple fully convolutional neural networks (FCN) that can learn the morphological features of water bodies in addition to their spectral properties, and 3) FCN that can classify water even from panchromatic imagery. This study focuses on rivers in the Arctic, using images from the Quickbird, WorldView, and GeoEye satellites. Because no training data are available at such high resolutions, we construct those manually. First, we use the RGB, and NIR bands of the 8-band multispectral sensors. Those trained models all achieve excellent precision and recall over 90% on validation data, aided by on-the-fly preprocessing of the training data specific to satellite imagery. In a novel approach, we then use results from the multispectral model to generate training data for FCN that only require panchromatic imagery, of which considerably more is available. Despite the smaller feature space, these models still achieve a precision and recall of over 85%. We provide our open-source codes and trained model parameters to the remote sensing community, which paves the way to a wide range of environmental hydrology applications at vastly superior accuracies and 2 orders of magnitude higher spatial resolution than previously possible.

In this paper, we address the challenge of land use and land cover classification using Sentinel-2 satellite images. The Sentinel-2 satellite images are openly and freely accessible provided in the Earth observation program Copernicus. We present a novel dataset based on Sentinel-2 satellite images covering 13 spectral bands and consisting out of 10 classes with in total 27,000 labeled and geo-referenced images. We provide benchmarks for this novel dataset with its spectral bands using state-of-the-art deep Convolutional Neural Network (CNNs). With the proposed novel dataset, we achieved an overall classification accuracy of 98.57%. The resulting classification system opens a gate towards a number of Earth observation applications. We demonstrate how this classification system can be used for detecting land use and land cover changes and how it can assist in improving geographical maps. The geo-referenced dataset EuroSAT is made publicly available at https://github.com/phelber/eurosat.

Crop type maps are critical for tracking agricultural land use and estimating crop production. Remote sensing has proven an efficient and reliable tool for creating these maps in regions with abundant ground labels for model training, yet these labels remain difficult to obtain in many regions and years. NASA's Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) spaceborne lidar instrument, originally designed for forest monitoring, has shown promise for distinguishing tall and short crops. In the current study, we leverage GEDI to develop wall-to-wall maps of short vs tall crops on a global scale at 10 m resolution for 2019-2021. Specifically, we show that (1) GEDI returns can reliably be classified into tall and short crops after removing shots with extreme view angles or topographic slope, (2) the frequency of tall crops over time can be used to identify months when tall crops are at their peak height, and (3) GEDI shots in these months can then be used to train random forest models that use Sentinel-2 time series to accurately predict short vs. tall crops. Independent reference data from around the world are then used to evaluate these GEDI-S2 maps. We find that GEDI-S2 performed nearly as well as models trained on thousands of local reference training points, with accuracies of at least 87% and often above 90% throughout the Americas, Europe, and East Asia. Systematic underestimation of tall crop area was observed in regions where crops frequently exhibit low biomass, namely Africa and South Asia, and further work is needed in these systems. Although the GEDI-S2 approach only differentiates tall from short crops, in many landscapes this distinction goes a long way toward mapping the main individual crop types. The combination of GEDI and Sentinel-2 thus presents a very promising path towards global crop mapping with minimal reliance on ground data.

Extracting building heights from satellite images is an active research area used in many fields such as telecommunications, city planning, etc. Many studies utilize DSM (Digital Surface Models) generated with lidars or stereo images for this purpose. Predicting the height of the buildings using only RGB images is challenging due to the insufficient amount of data, low data quality, variations of building types, different angles of light and shadow, etc. In this study, we present an instance segmentation-based building height extraction method to predict building masks with their respective heights from a single RGB satellite image. We used satellite images with building height annotations of certain cities along with an open-source satellite dataset with the transfer learning approach. We reached, the bounding box mAP 59, the mask mAP 52.6, and the average accuracy value of 70% for buildings belonging to each height class in our test set.

With the rise in high resolution remote sensing technologies there has been an explosion in the amount of data available for forest monitoring, and an accompanying growth in artificial intelligence applications to automatically derive forest properties of interest from these datasets. Many studies use their own data at small spatio-temporal scales, and demonstrate an application of an existing or adapted data science method for a particular task. This approach often involves intensive and time-consuming data collection and processing, but generates results restricted to specific ecosystems and sensor types. There is a lack of widespread acknowledgement of how the types and structures of data used affects performance and accuracy of analysis algorithms. To accelerate progress in the field more efficiently, benchmarking datasets upon which methods can be tested and compared are sorely needed. Here, we discuss how lack of standardisation impacts confidence in estimation of key forest properties, and how considerations of data collection need to be accounted for in assessing method performance. We present pragmatic requirements and considerations for the creation of rigorous, useful benchmarking datasets for forest monitoring applications, and discuss how tools from modern data science can improve use of existing data. We list a set of example large-scale datasets that could contribute to benchmarking, and present a vision for how community-driven, representative benchmarking initiatives could benefit the field.

Cashews are grown by over 3 million smallholders in more than 40 countries worldwide as a principal source of income. As the third largest cashew producer in Africa, Benin has nearly 200,000 smallholder cashew growers contributing 15% of the country's national export earnings. However, a lack of information on where and how cashew trees grow across the country hinders decision-making that could support increased cashew production and poverty alleviation. By leveraging 2.4-m Planet Basemaps and 0.5-m aerial imagery, newly developed deep learning algorithms, and large-scale ground truth datasets, we successfully produced the first national map of cashew in Benin and characterized the expansion of cashew plantations between 2015 and 2021. In particular, we developed a SpatioTemporal Classification with Attention (STCA) model to map the distribution of cashew plantations, which can fully capture texture information from discriminative time steps during a growing season. We further developed a Clustering Augmented Self-supervised Temporal Classification (CASTC) model to distinguish high-density versus low-density cashew plantations by automatic feature extraction and optimized clustering. Results show that the STCA model has an overall accuracy of 80% and the CASTC model achieved an overall accuracy of 77.9%. We found that the cashew area in Benin has doubled from 2015 to 2021 with 60% of new plantation development coming from cropland or fallow land, while encroachment of cashew plantations into protected areas has increased by 70%. Only half of cashew plantations were high-density in 2021, suggesting high potential for intensification. Our study illustrates the power of combining high-resolution remote sensing imagery and state-of-the-art deep learning algorithms to better understand tree crops in the heterogeneous smallholder landscape.